Henri van de Velde (1898). Tropon [color lithograph]. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

Non-objective abstraction applies; the most recognizable objects are the letters. The dense curvilinear forms bracketed by the words roughly repeat in their meandering nature, loops, contrast and variation in speed with just enough variation to give them unique and individualized character. They bind and illustrate the differences between the orange lobes above and white space below, spanned by a field of yellow, creating a lively, playful nature between the different areas. By placing tiny, perfectly circular points within the horizontal flow of the subject, Velde has emphasized its organic tone. There is absolutely no reference to the observer; how can this work be regarded as anything other than conceptual? 
A particular strength of this work is how subject and curvature blend into composition-defining angularity. While many works that define their edges with solid strokes do so in a way that is either obvious or distracting, neither is the case in this example. Areas of static and potentially distracting space are filled with wafer-thin and perpendicularly angled strokes with consistent margins between them. The outcome is a texturing effect that supports the decorative pictorial depth of this composition by creating a subtle spatial relationship between it, the text, and the swan-like subject pattern. 
The subject and framing strategy merge holistically to maintain interest in a repeating, graceful pattern always within the composition. The gestalt-based pictorial depth Velde has developed organically supports this sense of motion, a masterful compositional choice due to how it supports its sense of order. Velde’s distribution of value, conflict in complementary color, and tension between motion and pictorial order represent balance in the classical sense. One measure he’s used that contradicts this is an arguable over-reliance on bright, exhausting color. 

Edvard Munch (1893). The Scream [tempera and casein on cardboard]. Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo, Norway.

The scene and figure have completely crossed over into a world of subjectivity, creating a work of conceptual rather than perceptual reality. Colors and forms communicate the mental condition of the subject. In addition, perspective is bent, and the ground plane is similarly subjectively treated by tipping it toward the picture plane to an impossible degree, pushing the horizon line unnaturally upward. The rules of reality are compromised in favor of expressing a mental condition of emptiness verging on horror. 
Munch has rather elegantly blended the definition of line and shape similar to the style of van Gogh, lending strength to the surrealist character of this work and building a nearly incidental, textural pattern across the canvas. An impressionist quality is present in how purity is applied to individual brush strokes that the eye mixes in its reading of the composition. Texturing, neither simulated nor abstracted, is a hidden strength of this composition and falls in line with color in its support of emotional content. 
Munch is simply toying with the idea of pictorial depth. The emotional energy of the subject and his position nearly invade the space of the observer, and this intimacy is emphasized by the extreme perspective that formats the gangway. The composition is flattened by the fiery formatting of the sky that clashes against the body of water beneath it. Negative space is not respected; the composition is simultaneously flat and deep. 
Formally, this seminal work is not as structured as the emotional content is desperate, but there is some order. Rough, vague texture and detail, intermingling of discordant color and a triangular flow of energy created by blended edges create a great deal stable motion. As mentioned, emotional content drives interest, as well as the tension generated by relative coolness, brightness and curved versus rigid edges. 
(Conclusion based upon study) This painting is Munch’s reflection of a personal experience when he “sensed a shriek passing through nature…” The distortion of space and raw, subjective treatment of color reflect the impact an unbidden and visceral sense of horror has on the senses. This treatment of pictorial depth also references a sudden sense of isolation and reality-breaking fear of open space, as well. The figure’s attempt to drown out the sudden an unavoidable need to scream by covering his ears is clearly pointless. This is truly a masterful example of expressive abstraction. 

Gustave Moreau (1874 to 76). Apparition [watercolor on canvas]. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

Fantastical realism applies not only because of the reference to the other-worldly but because of the ornate manner used to develop the figures and background. Formally, this work shares a lot in common with a Roccoco master such as Watteau while sharing emotional traits with drawings by a Baroque artist such as Rembrandt. The construction of this composition is quite deliberate. The static poses of the midground figures and stability of the settings around them increase the effectiveness of where energy and tension are applied.  

The location, dramatic contrast and reference of the titled subject are certainly attention-grabbing. The pose of the secondary subject infuses this composition with incredible energy because of the interaction between the two figures and the disharmonious axis angles this interaction causes against the otherwise horizontal and vertical organization of the mid- and backgrounds. The architectural organization is reinforced by how the viewer is nearly reflected in pose and position with the guard on the other side of the picture plane. Spatial relationships are defined by the relative sharpness and placement of high key values in this work.

Moreau effortlessly and organically unifies hue, value, chroma and texture. Values are unrestricted and carefully blended, generating a subtle, binding and beautiful texturing effect across the canvas. The most dramatic shifts in contrast are reserved for the foreground subject interaction. The distribution of sparse color generates the perfect amount of life in the background while unifying the canvas. This allocation of the value range and modeling (arguably the same thing) along with an intuitive definition of details from fore- to background define forms in pictorial depth. Moreau layers the before-mentioned dynamic energy with calibration in elemental embellishments and a specific strategy in applying contrast to crystallize the canvas.

The setting is a royal court, bathed in richness as referenced by the golden highlights, furnishings and dress of the figures. A common theme of ancient literature across cultures (incest) is referenced in princess Solome’s sensual dance for her stepfather, king Herod. As payment for the display she demanded the head of John the Baptist. Moreau has rendered the narcissistic, capricious request with a poignance reflective of Solome’s character in order to emphasize it.

Édouard Manet (1881 to 82). A Bar at the Folies-Bergère [oil on canvas]. Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London.

I believe the primary purpose behind this masterpiece was to develop a snapshot of an establishment where Manet enjoyed spending his evenings (described in the title). Clearly the barmaid was individually selected for a reason beyond her pleasing appearance and modelling of the required dress code. Why her specifically, I cannot say, but her contrasting expression to the boisterousness of her surroundings clearly draws interest. 
Manet does not seem to be “recording light” to the fidelity of Monet, but if the densest shadows and lightest highlights were removed, the composition would reveal stunningly chromatic global color. The close proximity of analogous strokes has a diluting effect on this composition’s overall brightness. The moments of nearly pure color set in opposition to the impression of foundational diluted ones communicates the smoky thickness of the air quite well. The rich, beautiful texturing effect unique to this masterpiece is built on a glittering, incised and blended value pattern. 
Forms tend to be warmer, more chromatic and defined towards the foreground, blending into a dense, cool haze towards the background. The placement of light values, circular and floral forms does not defeat the masterful illusion of depth but instead unifies the two grounds. The composition is quite solid due to the remarkable modeling of the foreground shapes and generous distribution of dense tones. 
The youthful, feminine form of the front-and-center subject is emphasized by the arrangement of modeled objects and cross-directional mechanical forms she is leaning on and located behind her. Her gaze does not meet the observer/patron, but instead focuses on the playful activity she cannot be a part of. Her expression is the primary area of interest for overlapping reasons: relative focus and size, stark contrasts in value, and it is where almost all of the emotional energy is located. 
One of the unusual forms of unity Manet establishes with this work is the use of each major hue individually applied across the full range of values. It is a simply stunning reflection of gathering hall that presents both an optically realistic snapshot of the location and clear emotional impact. (Correction: The scene behind the barmaid is a mirror, according to experts. If so, then it at an impossible angle relative to the field of view of the observer. In addition, the man in the upper-right corner of the composition is the observer). 

 

Mary Cassatt (1891). Maternal Caress [drypoint, soft-ground etching and aquaprint on paper]. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

The breaking of pictorial depth and subject development adjusts focus from local areas to the overall composition and the interaction between the subjects. Where Monet’s Gare St-Lazare still had slightly more emphasis on local areas and therefore realism, this work nearly splits the realism/abstraction scale in half but favors simplification. Non-convergence, gestalt and Cassatt’s repeating treatment of floral patterns infuse this work with an Eastern sense of decoration. 

The location of emotional energy, distribution of curved versus angular edges and contrasting field of coolness highlight the exchange between the subjects. The arrangement of the subjects and background roughly mimics the perpendicular energy of the canvas edges. The titled “caress” is placed on a much more dynamic, diagonal axis, infusing an otherwise static composition with a moment of energy. All of these formal interactions and unifications qualify this as a masterpiece in design.

This work is uncharacteristic of not only its time frame but the preceding few centuries in its reliance on contour line to define shapes. The perspective of the subjects and resulting tilting of the horizon line are interest-generating measures and in keeping with the Eastern style. This unexpected sense of balance is echoed by the nearly absolute use of diluted colors, defined textures and more subtle favoring of midtones.

The simplification of forms heralds the severe separation of pictorial elements that would be seen in the early 20^th century works of artists such as Mondrian and Léger. Cassatt favors discordant and recognizable floral and circular forms to build textures to same effectiveness as tromp l’oeil textures. Her use of color is more subjective than optical, and her development of space is unexpected; all measures commonly used by artists in the coming decades.

Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson (1797). Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley [oil on canvas]. Musée National du Château de Versailles.

Belley was a former slave sent from the French colony of Santi-Dominigue (now Haiti) to represent the colony during the French conventions. He was instrumental in the temporary abolition of slavery in 1794. They gained full citizenship until Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1801. The portrait-bust is of abolitionist philosophe Guillaume Raynal, whose work was continued by Belley. 
The orientation of the canvas and Belley’s contrapposto pose infuse the composition with an aspirational spirit. His expression and focus merge this idealism with a sense of inevitability, or effortless calm. The Naturalism and formal arrangement of this piece references the stylistic preferences of Girodet-Trioson’s mentor, Jacques-Louis David. 

The form of the subject noticeably contrasts with the angular architectural and figurative solid forms, though the portrait-bust is rendered with amazing sensitivity to the texture of flesh. While their visual development differs, they align in tone due to the spirit of national acceptance the ancient Roman Republic and that of the developing French Republic of the time represented. 

Two major sources of the visually pleasing nature of this masterpiece are the balances Girodet-Trioson strikes with light and dense tones and bright versus dull chroma. Value works hard, both defining subjects and developing their surfaces in space through sensitive modelling. The vagueness of the sky is reflected in the pedestal; overall the textures of this piece are rich and infuse its Naturalism with vitality. 

Girodet-Trioson creates a visually cohesive masterpiece through interest-generating contrasts in value and chroma against a context of liberalism and rich textures. This work in particular evidences a trend of the time moving away from the light-hearted, playful style typical of the Rococo in favor of a more substantial, crystallized formal style, a reordering of classical themes and subject matter, and stoic tone.

Claude Monet (1877) Gare St-Lazare [oil on canvas] Musée d’Orsay, Paris.

This work nearly splits the abstraction scale in half but favors realism. The rough brush work, combined with absolute reliance on muddied colors, create an invented textural binding effect and qualifies this work as process art. For the time, the application of abstraction is severe, and is consistent with a specific set of impressions inspired within the observer: thick, dirty air, perhaps a chill, and formal choices that impress the unnecessary fast-paced nature of urban life more than the view of the city center itself. This somewhat unexpected application of brushwork is stabilized by Monet’s formal distribution of energy and “weight” on the canvas. 

Monet’s use of value and diminishing size create a seamless sense of spaciousness in the low-key foreground and strong spatial order in the high-key background. A strong and unique depth-establishing measure is to blend values from area-to-area, shape-to-shape. The repeating vertical and horizontal forms moving in from the sides, top and bottom build a sense of convergence. Blues, greens and oranges create a split-complementary color scheme, favoring cool colors, which develop ample negative space and solid forms mostly on purity blends.

Monet uses nearly absolute reliance on muddied color, consistent and rough texture and on-canvas blending to set up one of the greatest strengths of this composition, the division between fore- and backgrounds. This is based on relatively sharp transitions from dense to light value and a shift in color. This masterpiece is effective at its intended purpose of impressing on a viewer who may never have experienced a bustling urban center the impact it would have on the senses, to include hearing and smell, but it does so in neither an aggressively cynical or idealized manner.

What is made clear in this work is Monet’s obsession with “recording light” in favor of a perceptual representation of the subject. This is clearly seen in the interplay between gaseous and solid forms, the heavy use of atmospheric perspective, severely minimalized yet evident modelling and a reduction of human forms and interactions to no more than a handful of brushstrokes. Monet has layering lessons to teach; the one I personally place in high regard is to remain true to what is seen, unaffected by prior knowledge, and therefore expectations, of the subject being rendered.

Édouard Manet (1863). Olympia [oil on canvas]. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

While the figures in this work are undeniably individualized, it verges on semi-abstract realism because of Manet’s polarized use of value. They are either darkened or lightened to the point where nuance is nearly lost, which forces the observer to attend to available details more. While this near reverse-silhouetting will certainly get this masterpiece noticed in a display hall, pictorially it is quite organized and static. There is clear formal experimentation taking place, but the most likely purpose for this work’s development is erotica (correction: a tonal and conceptual inversion of Titian’s Venus of Urbino). 
Pictorial depth is beautifully decorative. The value organization creates unique “solid and empty” shapes with delicate textural line-work to create some depth. This line work blends into a graceful and global patterning of floral forms and drapery folds to create a subtle binding effect. It’s not difficult to imagine this work as a collection of gracefully meandering edges, lines and directional forces because of the impact value has on the development of forms. In this way, Manet has unified depth, texture, pattern, value and chroma. 

A handful of interesting formal relationships are built. Colors are quite diluted overall, and that impression is maintained where values are dense. Where they are light, color appears more chromatic than it is. The use of values causes solid areas to appear weightless and empty areas to seem solid. If not for the recognizability of the subjects this could be a work based on field/ground relationships. Straight background shapes and the angular edges of the linen folds emphasize the curves of the woman somewhat (correction: if Titian’s work is considered, it becomes clear that this last observation is completely wrong). 

Manet seems to be referencing Ingres’ Odalisque in a sensitive manner through the subject’s disposition and Praxiteles Aphrodite with cynicism through the gesture of her left arm. The formally stark rendering of the naked woman, combined with her youthful appearance and diminutive size, give this work an unmistakably off-putting tone. A step in the direction of abstraction that would characterize the early 20^th century is clearly seen here in Manet’s treatment of value and shape, parallel to the same progress characteristic of Corot’s application and blending of brush stroke.

Jean-Baptiste-Camille Carot (1855). First Leaves, Near Mantes [oil on canvas]. The Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Quite subtle abstraction is detectable, and the only evidence of the “specific” is the unique character of the spruce trees and the foliage that blossoms from them. Carot binds the canvas together through narrow tree-forms that are quite tall. While they carry the same modeled development and texturing, he varies their pace and width as the eye follows the horizontal pace they create. From right-to left, formal energy is structured and quickly becomes more unbalanced. An analogous yellow and green color scheme applies, with purity and value gradients used to format forms. 

The modelling of the tree trunks and consistent light source create this work’s sense of pictorial depth. This is underscored by forms that are both blended and defined by sharp edges and spatial separation. Textures and form details become steadily smoother as the foreground shifts to background. 

If a single focus applies, it has to be the dramatic contrapposto tree-form, the thickest of all the trees, with generous margins on either side emphasizing its formal differences. It draws attention to the bursting tree form to its left, into the depth of the composition, announcing the less aggressive horizontal edges that draw the eye laterally into the more static right half of the composition. 

This masterpiece is built on contrasts between defined shapes versus formless masses, organic edges that are straight versus those that meander, and bright versus earthy colors. Treatment of values is unique, as well. Their arrangement brings emphasis to the contrasting nature of the shapes and vertical orientation of the tree-forms. The colossal size of the natural forms, which dominate the canvas, overwhelm the tiny human figures posed on the trail. 

Analogous relationships characterize this masterpiece. Organic, natural, scenic forms and analogous color create a beautiful foundation of harmony for variations in shape definition, size, meandering edges and cross-directional motion to shine through on. Peaceful, almost dreamy renditions of life in the country became favored in mid-19^th century France, especially in Paris, because the city crossed the threshold into a world-class metropolis in this time period. Noisy, busy and congested, a taste for the fresh, pressure-free rural lifestyle, like the one depicted in Corot’s masterpiece, took root.

Alexandre Cabanel (1864). The Birth of Venus [oil on canvas]. Dahesh Museum of Art, New York.

Cabanel documents a vision through fantastical realism that relies on embellishments in color and shape that verge on impossibility. That is, subject matter is fantasy, form verges on the fantastic but remains realistic. Beyond that, Cabanel uses canonical formal measures to bring an imagined image to life, and vitality saturates the canvas. The arrival of a version of the very symbol of feminine beauty and fertility could only have occurred on such a magically picturesque day. While Botticelli’s Venus is bashful, Cabanel’s seems to be more Eve-like, or innocent. Both are heralded and associated with the sea and nature

The primary formal measure used to draw interest and infuse this composition with youthful energy is a stark yet seamless conflict in chromatic complementary color (blue vs orange). The warm, glowing flesh of the living is masterfully locked into various states of action through the fluidity of cool, natural forms. Gestalt establishes a close-proximity relationship between the figures. Modelling, intuitive color temperature and a contrast between presence and eternity develop this work’s pictorial depth.

The chubbiness and joyful expression of the cherubs are analogous to Venus’ healthy form and warm disposition. The two subjects bring out contrasts in size, age and energy. While the nakedness of Venus’ form is undeniably charged with sensuality, that of the cherubs is child-like. The steady, peaceful impression of the waves is repeated by the rhythm of Venus’ curves. Flowing along her body, framed by her arms, chest and the directional motion of the two figures above her face, most of the pictorial flow rests on her peaceful expression. The nearby positioning of the observer attempts to draw them into Cabanel’s fantasy.

This work represents a complicated period in western artistic tradition where tastes (specifically French) still favored romantic subject matter that referenced the other-worldly, but changed in that they longed for more Earthly, reality-based accessibility. Cabanel accomplishes this in large part due to his undeniably masterful rendering of skin, bodily forms and his skill in modelling. By reducing the glow of Venus’ skin when compared to the putti, and rendering her in an erotic pose, she is more “accessible” to the casual observer.

 

David Roberts (1841). Gateway to the Great Temple at Baalbek [oil on canvas]. Royal Academy of the Arts, London.

This work shares a great deal in common with Turner’s Snowstorm in that it is a strictly static and realistic masterpiece with a single source of tension that is intense enough to threaten destabilizing it. Formally, Roberts had made quite an original choice in surrounding negative space by solid forms. This orchestration greatly enhances the tension in this masterpiece because the massive fragment poised to fall penetrates the portal. 

I believe the application of color represents robust unification. Generous, muddied golds set in opposition to splashes of red and blue complete the subtractive primaries which all color is based on. Roberts’ use of value is quite open in the far-background but restricted in the foreground; value contrast reverses this strategy: A wider range is used in the foreground, more restricted in the background, centered on midtones. The calibration of subject and textural detail is fully unified with this manipulation of value, which explains the masterful illusion of depth.

Dramatic shifts in scale generate interest in this piece. The eye shifts back and forth between the dislodged architectural element and the crowd below. This organization of eye pathways is underscored by the vagueness of the surroundings and the far-background. This tension is emphasized by the perpendicular grid-like arrangement of shapes, edges, directional lines of force and the orientation of the canvas. The off-axis orientation and ground placement of the observer, and the resulting distortion of the horizontal axis lines, enhance this piece’s sense of drama.

The slightness of the human subjects, combined with the erosion of the man-made structures that once dominated nature, illustrates the conflict between natural forces against human intelligence and self-destructiveness. Both have the potential to assert themselves over the other to the near-destruction of the subordinated with the impossibility of either being completely wiped out. Roberts has masterfully manipulated eye movement and pictorial interest through color purity, a shape-defining value pattern than employs the full range, amazing pictorial depth and a very subtle application of formal design.

Joseph Mallard William Turner (1812). Snowstorm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps. The Tate Gallery, London.

Turner provides a photo-realistic fantasy snapshot of a perilous moment Hannibal’s army endured in their crossing of the Alps. The tone leaves an impression of danger and gives the observer a glimpse of their own mortality. This impression would not be as potent if the composition weren’t so stable in its formal arrangement. This masterpiece tells a story, impacts the observer, documents a straddled moment in time and demonstrates carefully considered design principles.

Value binds and energizes the canvas. At its most basic level a horizontally-oriented field of light, washed-out tone is vertically bracketed by two dark fields. It is aggressively penetrated by a monstrous mass of dense weather, coiling to attack the mountainside. This demonstrates beautiful contrasts in value, form geometry and figurative versus natural forces, the power of which is so great it seems to drain all color off the canvas, leaving behind dying, smoky browns and grays.

The plastic development of forms and their illusionistically-realistic rendering builds this work’s masterful pictorial depth. Transparency usually creates tight gestalt relationships, but not in this case. The snowstorm’s power to dim the sun, in combination with its overwhelming size and coiled form, clearly communicate its mindless, malevolent power. It’s sharp contrast in value from the far-background create the impression of a distant spatial relationship between the two, supported by Turner’s calibration of detail.

Directional forces swirl upward into the upper canvas, poised in a moment of gathering strength. Right-to-left motion is steady, slow, and passive along the bottom edge. There, two moments are communicated: What is about to happen at lower-right where a gesture of panic is found, and to the left where the only defined forms are found. The impression of danger is underscored by Turner’s placement of the observer in the formation. This anticipation of violence poised a moment before attacking throws the composition off-balance, in spite of, or perhaps enhanced by, its formal, value- and purity-based, stability.

One of the themes of a work such as Lorenzetti’s Allegory of Good Government is that mankind’s self-determination requires it to bring order and efficiency to nature. This message is turned on its head in works such as Gericault’s Raft of the “Medusa” and this. Turner could possibly be comparing Hannibal to Napoleon, who in his attempted conquest of Europe crossed the Alps but, like Hannibal, was destined for failure.

Eugène Delacroix (1830). Liberty Leading the People: July 28, 1830 [oil on canvas]. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

The scene is clearly a reflection of perceptual reality, but the idea of liberty for the common man is prioritized over representing actual individuals and even the actual event. The fact that the ultimate price may be collected in exchange for a chance of winning or maintaining freedom is communicated, as is the idea that the risk is fully justified. While the scene of a battlefield is present, this work’s energy and motion is centered on the action of Lady Liberty figure, gathered by the hopeful, pleading gestures moving in her direction. She is not a person, she is an idea. 

Delacroix’ use of generous, muddied colors binds the composition together and allow the comparatively bright colors of the French flag to stand out and announce their symbolic meanings even more. Values both interlock and blend, stabilize the massive weight of the composition, and provide the scaffolding for his chromatic choices to communicate content so effectively. 

The battlefield and arrangement of figures create a stage for the Lady and her defender, the billowing smoke effectively a spotlight. The duo appear elevated and statue-like yet project dynamic action in large part due to the value-defined modeling used throughout the composition. A steady forward-to-back blending of subject and textural detail supports this organization of pictorial depth. Lady Liberty is highlighted, centrally-located, bracketed on either lateral side, half-naked and forces of motion terminate on her form. Accents of blue and red scattered on the canvas create secondary visual paths. 

Delacroix builds a massive foundation of stability based on pictorial balance, figurative arrangement and a masterful interlocking and blending of the full value range. From this pedestal, the cry for liberty, and willingness to give all for a chance to keep it, is shouted from the composition based on idealistic references to the political ideals classical antiquity and strictly measured employment of chroma. The woman leading the people into battle is barefoot and bare-chested, unprotected, symbolic of the legitimacy of the idea that she represents and the undeniability that her cause will prevail based on that self-evident truth.

Théodore Géricault (1818-1819) “Raft of the Medusa” [oil on canvas]. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

Géricault achieves a sense of balance between formal arrangement and subjective chaos that would make the ancient Greeks proud. The twisting figures and subjective turmoil enhance the powerful churning of the sea and the impossibility of stability. In opposition to the chaotic formal arrangement reminiscent of an artist such as Kandisky, this is a work of optical realism and measured figurative arrangement. The result is emotional chaos and formal order balanced on a razor’s edge.

Separating a single of the many strengths of this composition is a challenge. In elemental terms, Géricault creates an illusionistically-realistic block of figures based on a stark pattern of values. The relative color brightness of the waves compared to the foreground references the failing vitality of the figures. Depth relies on chroma being used in an unintuitive way, stark modelling, complicated figurative interactions and relative focus.

The asymmetric balance trapped within the canvas is based on two points of tension. The swelling of the ocean tips the raft up where the greatest sense of downward thrust is generated by the figurative block. Conversely, the relative weightlessness of the opposite side of the raft builds a polarized sense of tension because of the anticipation that the right side will push down, tipping the left side up, aided by the next cycle of waves.

In addition to the formal and emotional balance conflicts present is that of amorphous, blended forms represented by nature overpowering defined, passive human forms. Géricault uses terminal values to express drama. Color purity is used to remarkable and specific effect: diluted colors overwhelm, causing the subtle blues of the ocean to appear brighter than they are. This global use of chroma causes the smattering of crimson to leap off the page, hinting at cannibalism that isn’t literally represented. The swelling block of figures continues the impression of force generated by the ocean waves, terminating at the muscular figure signaling for rescue.

This work provides a strong example of the master’s choice to adjust formal details in favor of communicating an underlaying message. Desperation and death are evident, but instead of rendering decomposition, the forms are athletic and youthful. This choice was made to eliminate any preoccupation with mortality in favor of Géricault’s political message (one I completely missed) because such figures are more accessible.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1814). Large Odalisque [oil on canvas]. Mesee du Louvre, Paris.

This work builds an impression of disquiet. The figure’s flesh and the sumptuousness around her give it an edge of the fantastic. The purpose behind this “bending” of optical reality is to make the artist’s commentary easier to glean. This would be a conceptual work if not for Ingres’ masterful skill in subtlety. One of the questions I cannot answer is whether the impact of this work is meant to be felt in the mind of the observer or released from his.

Ingres’ use of color approaches subjective to the same degree as Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights. The color scheme is “bent”, disharmony a result of the bend, between infinitesimally warmed blues and golden oranges. Given that blue is dominant, the orange should be more neutral in temperature. The relative chroma between the figure’s form and her surroundings aligns in tone with the color disharmony. This interaction of color, the relative indistinctness of her form and the distortion of her bodily proportions relate an inaccessible quality to the figures’ emotional state on the part of the observer, who takes on the role of client.

Value is also used to create a mood and tension. It is primarily responsible for the richness of the furnishings which define most of the figure, which draws attention to the oddly cool and under developed modelling of her skin. Much of her upper body is defined by a jarringly-stark contrast between the pitch behind her and her comparative lightness. The conceptual message is more important than any one area of the canvas. Ingress uses fluid, sloping directional forces originating in the far-right drapery through the contours of the figure’s body to end on her face, which is casually glancing over her shoulder to the observer.

The mood of this work is built through conflict-generating equivalencies, especially regarding color. This would not be possible without the unheralded foundation of harmonies Ingres builds with the consistent manner he defines edges, the textural richness he uses and an overall feminine tone. One of the conflicts I believe Ingres is attempting to inspire is to develop a youthful and attractive woman into a figure that is simultaneously lacking in the sensuality she inspires. The great accomplishment of this masterpiece is infusing it with this tension through formal choices instead of more literal methods.

Jacque-Louis David (1793). Death of Marat [oil on canvas]. Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels.

Clearly, the lower-half of the canvas is most active. Beyond that, even and realistic formal development leave the mind questioning what the intended focus is. In the search for meaning, the observer is left to pick up on the clues and impressions the composition offers.

The position the observer takes is even with the figure’s face, which would mean she is in a kneeling position, lamenting the tragedy and horror of this event. This hints at an integration of convergence, but value-based modelling develops this work’s depth. A complementary color scheme fuses with the unity of this masterpiece, mostly relying on purity to vary color.

One of the strongest equivalencies generating the unique drama of this composition is formlessness against definition. The overall formal development references the dramatic expression and illusionistic Naturalism of Mannerists such as Caravaggio and la Tour.

The single-greatest strength of this masterpiece is how David uses emotional expression to create conflict through balance. Mass and energy pool like coagulated blood to the bottom of the composition. The dead, indistinct negative space enhances the lifelessness of the composition. All directional thrusts, when not slipping downward, move in cross-directional energy, searching for a downward path to follow.

Contradicting this visual motion is the peaceful expression on Marat’s face, and the impression that the light warming his form is gently lifting something within him upward. The expression could be one of relief, as if the passing of his life has caused the formless component of who he is to suddenly understand what a burden it is to carry a physical body throughout the period of its usefulness.

The framework of perpendicular edges and lines of force highlight the diagonal motion of the figure’s arm, still grasping the quill near a discarded blade. I believe this endorses the legitimacy of deliberate reason over force as a foundation for political authority. If so, David seems to be stating that any moral high ground French Revolutionaries carried was lost upon Marat’s assassination.

Fact check: Marat was an assassinated journalist. The note he carries was one of his projects. The meaning constructed by comparing the quill to the knife likely does not apply. The block Marat used to do much of his work becomes his tombstone, and he is presented as a political, rather than religious, martyr.

Joshua Reynolds (1765). Lady Sarah Bunbury Sacrificing to the Gods [oil on canvas]. The Art Institute of Chicago.

Formal and compositional arrangement strikes a delicate balance between spontaneity and “canonical” design.  The single-greatest measure that breaks up any sense of rigid order is the interplay between solid and empty regions.

This masterpiece references the “second resurgence” of classical subject matter and sensibilities of the eighteenth century. A portrait of the subject transports her to a fantasy world of ancient Rome, where she participates in a private ritual that would be common. She is healthy, youthful, and lacking any hint of adolescent impulsivity.

Thematic content related to ancient Rome is repeated, including the architecture, surrounding adornments, activity, dress and lekythos held by the maidservant. The fact that she even has a maidservant references another theme of life in ancient Rome: Slavery. This, combined with the work’s title and the relative perspective of the observer, places her in the aristocratic class.

Texture, detail and color purity are fully unified. Where focus is distributed, textures are sharp and color development is pure within the specific color system Reynolds uses. This calibration of detail and color, and their respective contrasts, is primarily responsible for the masterful illusion of depth. Respective portions of the value range are used effectively to define different regions on the canvas, and local adjustments in value support the hierarchy of subject matter.

Pictorial movement follows a graceful curve from top-left to lower-right supported by directional lines of force, gestures and a flowing pattern of small, rounded forms created by treetops, flowers, vapor and bunched robes toward the lower edge of the canvas.

This work is a textbook example of how numeric inferiority can overpower a compositional choice with a larger population. The overall chroma of this work is diluted, but the slight pinks and whites of the subject’s gown seem to elevate her relative to the picture plane. Even the flowers she gestures toward seem bright, when in reality both are middling in the state of their chroma. Reynold’s measured use of terminal values set against a backdrop of generous midtones is a major compositional strength.

Reynolds combines content and literal imagery to reference the classical theme of this masterpiece. More importantly, he generously applies his skill to establish both formal and conceptual balances and broken proportions to align with the spirit of the ancient Roman aspiration towards idealized, naturalistic beauty and confidence in human kind. This is seen in the interplay between the natural and artificial, vaguely spartan and richly defined, gender qualities, warmth, relative chroma and overall formal development.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1761). The Lion Bas-Relief [etching and engraving]. From the Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco.

The figures and constructs are visually developed, but their arrangement ambiguous subject matter call attention to the this work’s conceptual purpose. The horizontal and oblique grid system arranges forms and space quite effectively for its organizational and seamless qualities. Each ground (fore, mid and back) is bound together through interpenetrating and gestalt relationships. 
The full range of values is applied and arranged in an effective way. They create an interplay of dense, middling and light tones, building a slightly flattened spatial relationship. Depth is crafted by the midground’s planar recession and the far-off scenes treated with a lowered and centered range of values. 

While the composition is stable, it is infused with a complicated and straight-forward network of forces. The orientation of the canvas complements the vertical flow of the architectural elements, which also has competing oblique angles. Figures are arranged and directed at perpendicular angles, which both complements and conflicts with the before-mentioned structure. This network of forces becomes this work’s greatest strength when the measured installation of curved and rounded forms breaks up its rigid angularity. 

One of the interesting contrasts this work possesses is how most of the portals and some of the figures feel naturally scaled to the convenience of mankind, in opposition a monumental interpretation of their scale. Each area of this composition demands attention. The general restriction of the lightest tones to the impending execution area is supported by the directional flow of the perspective lines and the pattern created by the arcade. The brooding, dense treatment and lowered position of the lions hint at a sense of horror. 

The placement of the observer does more than anything to give this work its fantastical character. Natural scenery, sparse and impossibly framed in the far-distance, build and elevate it to heights that disregard the idea of a horizon line. More importantly, the observer is placed on the same plane as the beasts, who are ignoring more convenient prey for one moments away from being available. 

The basic subject is an execution placed in a fantasy-setting. Architecture is monumental beyond human capability. The lions communicate mindless violence and are treated more as nightmare-borne monsters. A number of latent and ingenious interest-generating conflicts are installed which both dictate attention and provide a sense of unification. Overall a harmonious balance is struck due to Piranesi’s sense of subtlety. 

Canaletto (1735 to 38). Santi Giovanni E Paolo and the Monument of Bartelommeo Colleoni [oil on canvas]. The Royal Collection, Windsor Castle, Windsor, England.

Order characterizes this masterpiece. It does not suffer from the static qualities of experimental works of perspective from centuries past for a handful of reasons. The unexpected placement of the vanishing point, behind a midground building, is one. This work shows clear development in the role of perspective in western creative expression. Another is how the figures are not arranged on a strict organization system. A consistent and pronounced scale is employed, and pictorial depth is strong but slightly contradicted by the scene’s hyper-realistic detail.

Canaletto’s use of value, color purity and pattern reach a level of integration that makes one impossible to separate from another. The full value range is explored, but not in the dramatic fashion of the previous two centuries. It’s integration with chroma creates a beautiful pattern of architectural elements and figures that give the canvas a sense of calm energy. The graceful expression of the canvas is built on both the color/value/pattern integration and the subject’s relationship to the limitations of the canvas. While the latter is somewhat obvious in its application, this is broken up by a diffusion of oblique edges.

Rigid, straight edges and directional thrusts are contrasted by a careful arrangement of circular shapes and figurative subjects. The use of scale and subtle conflict of color temperature and chroma develop the interest and unique realism of this piece. The harshness of the architectural forms is greatly diluted by the indistinct quality of the sky, a major compositional strength. The fresh, open character of this work is largely due to the generous use of midtones, some of which bleed into adjoining areas.

The basilica, fully modeled and developed, dominates the canvas. The manner in which it frames and envelopes the monument, combined with the sun shaft-like and midday illumination of it, pulls a great deal of focus to it as well. Elemental and detail development is exhaustive throughout the canvas, which diffuses much of the ample energy trapped within it.

The greatest strength of this masterpiece is the beautiful, seamless manner Canaletto has woven together tiny vertical, narrow and rounded forms with a latent arrangement of perpendicular and oblique edges. His manipulation of color purity and its relative warmth is a source of tension that supports the subtle sense of interest he’s created. This is a masterful example of hidden elemental and formal conflicts that result in a state of harmonious unity.

Jean-Henoré Fragonard (1771 to 73). The Meeting [oil on canvas]. The Frick Collection, New York.

This work of Naturalism is formally stable, yet charged with apprehension. Unlike artists of more recent movements, Fragonard does not rely on severe simplification and inaccessibility to express the intended emotional content. A story is clearly told in this work of design, but this masterpiece is centered on inspiring an intermingled emotional welling of anticipation and dread.

The unification of hue, value and chroma is absolute. The way this work rolls its reliance on purity and value contrasts to define shapes is a primary source of the visual satisfaction it offers. Organic, swelling, and rounded edges build an underlying, flowing pattern for the highlighted subjects and their emotions to shine through. The unification of these qualities approaches the richness, but not the density, typical of van Eyck. I am arguing that time is the primary element of this piece because the foundation these qualities inspire set up the emotional content and mid-motion tension.

The field of view is compressed, but the illusion of depth is as strong as its color unity. This illusion is based on the unique method Fragonard uses to define value, edges and details. The net effect of this work's directional thrusts and integration of the canvas edges give this piece a distinct impression that more than half of it is missing. The only forces at work to counter this movement are the motion of the woman and gestures of foliage breaking up the sky. Beautiful asymmetric balance is struck.

Sensuality is suggested by the organic, roiling character of surrounding shapes, the warmth and brightness that formats the dimensions of their color and the heat centered on the focused area of the realm the couple is half a moment from building together. Textural focus follows how depth is organized, and its luxuriousness closely follows the emotional tone. In the end, implied directional forces do more to direct the eye than the waves of elemental contrasts Fragonard has installed in the canvas.

The emotional tension of this work is matched and supported by Fragonard’s formal choices. Organic, swelling, feminine forms and tone overpower artificial, rigid and masculine ones. Equivalencies in chroma, two basic shape sizes and types of definition underpin its roiling nature, beautiful texture, and overall embellished formatting. Organic unification describes this masterpiece.

Jean-Antoine Watteau (1721). The Signboard of Gersaint [oil on canvas]. Stiftung Preussische Schlössen und Gärten Berlin-Brandenburg, Scholoss Charlottenburg.

Gestures, weight and order build a balanced and deliberate composition. Organization is nearly rigid: The perspective-based vertical space in the background divides the composition in half, organizing two closed blocks of figures on either half of the canvas. This composition is arguably approximately symmetric, though not to the degree of Buoninsegna’s Virgin and Child in Majesty. 
The primary reason for development of this work to advertise as a signboard for an art dealer. The activity depicted and arrangement of masterpieces of equal, dense development in the background make a lot of sense in this context. 

The casual accessibility to color and Watteau’s choice to tightly control its relative intensity slightly outwork his use of value. The blending of chroma, muted colors and value is nearly impossible to untangle, but the starkness of whites, pinks and careful value juxtapositions define the fore- and backgrounds beautifully. This works masterful illusion of depth illustrates the effectiveness of simplicity. Single-point perspective and strong-to-diluted contrasts in value, from fore- to background, build the illusion. 

This work is a textbook example of how to populate a canvas with figurative and geometric shapes in a way that is unified. The figurative forms are the subject and infuse the canvas with life. The geometric forms are textured to keep them from being mechanical and carry a hint of the energy the subjects possess. They are formatted with dense and middling tones, while the subjects use a full and more assertive focus of the value range. Within the organization of geometric shapes, Watteau has carefully placed of rounded forms and has broken this work’s reliance on balance by installing a more latent equation of dominance. While masculine subjects outnumber feminine, the relative activities of those figures cause numerically smaller subjects to formally overpower that of a greater number. 

Watteau, tragically, was died of tuberculosis shortly after the creation of this work. Mortality is referenced in this piece in a handful of ways, only one of which is accessible to me. Mirrors and images of women looking at themselves in mirrors are symbolic of the fleeting nature of youth even to this day. 
When bringing together the components of visual expression, the term masterful applies, and the application of the word in this case is based on a saturation of subtlety, and not just in content. Watteau’s application of value teeters on the edge of blending into adjacent areas. In addition, careful examination of the value pattern he has installed reveals how he controls focus. He has organized the composition on perpendicular figurative and edge directional forces that sink into the canvas and provide the scaffolding for the specific organic unity he has defined. 

Return to analysis

I hope everyone had a great Christmas and New Year! Mine was productive. I knew I wouldn't be able to come up with a full comprehensive draft of my analysis process, but I did piece together a little over half. My plan is to continue working on it concurrently with this final grouping of analysis. So far it is completely worth the effort, I'm learning a lot and sorting a lot out.

The next 82 works I take a look at will be more than a challenge. Working through the Enlightenment to Modern era, visual expression from these three centuries is exceedingly complicated. I'm going to miss vital points, confuse figures and places and simply be completely wrong about a lot of my statements. It's easy for me to say this now, but I'm going to accept this inevitability partially to gain more confidence in making assertive statements that actually "take a stand" instead of being vague enough to say things that can't really be proven one way or another. I know at the other end of this, I will have learned a ton, and only strengthened the formal and conceptual understanding of my own work so much more.

I also will take Sunday off from formal analysis to simply recharge a little. This will stretch out the project by two weeks, so it should wrap up the week of April ninth. Based on my "formalism recall ability", each essay takes three to four hours to build and reshape into something concise enough to post online. I'm applying a 400 word limit to each one, which will force me to restrict myself to vital statements.