(artist(s) unknown) (concecrated 550, various developments to structure and decoration spanning from the 6th to 9th centuries). The Transfiguration of Christ with Saint Apollinaris, First Bishop of Ravenna [apsidal mosaic]. Church of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe.

The top-most register depicts the representative icons of the four apostles (from left to right, Eagle/John, Man/Matthew, Lion/Mark, Bull/Luke) oriented towards Christ. Their proximity to heaven is implied by the cloud patterning that builds the background of the register. Heaven is connected to the temporal world in the next register down, which continues the cloud motif. The entire composition conforms to the architectural forms, voids and surfaces they are expressed on, and this formal strategy is especially ingenious in this register, where the upper arch of the apse is used to represent to Earth (though, of course, in the Middle Ages it was not common knowledge that the world was round). Civilization is implied in the second register by the cubic forms that bracket it, with a flock gathering beneath the direct, staring eye of Christ. 

Saint Apollinaris gathers his flock in the apse, in similar fashion to Christ. He resides in an Eden-like field with rhythmically-paced plants and animals gesturing toward the true center of interest of this combination of mosaics. This is the Christian cross, floating in a portal, surrounded by stars, the true path to the eternal afterlife. The bottom-most register alternates between full-standing figures and windows, two arcades interwoven together. The global composition is quite static and organized, communicating through symbols and images, not words, directly to the observer.

Formally, though the composition is typical to the planar style of the Byzantines, there is a degree of modelling available consistent with such ancient works as Queen Nefertari Making an Offering to Isis. Texturing is a combination of deliberate rendering within shapes blended with the qualities native to mosaic, possibly the greatest harmonizing measure of this series. Registers-within-registers, a form of reverse diminution is used in the flora and fauna that surround the front-and-center Saint Apollinaris. Intuitive temperature and purity counter this, maintaining the shallow sense of depth.

Directional accessways and flow are as organized as this works sense of symmetry: The eye is directed vertically along the stacking of registers, and then at perpendicular angles according to the lateral, rhythmic pacing of subjects. This work certainly favors formal harmony over energy, but there are interest-generating measures. Most notable are tensions created between subject sizes, occasional sharp contrasts in value and chroma, and rigid versus curvilinear forms which conform gracefully to the medium.

(Neolithic shelter painting, artist(s) unknown) (4000 to 2000 bc). People and Animals [rock painting]. Cogul, Lérida, Spain.

The rock-shelter painting People and Animals is a work of objective abstraction. Figures, mostly women, are severely reduced to angled and curved lines and planar geometric shapes. The waist-hip ratio of several of the figures emphasizes their womanhood, as does the nature of the strokes that create their bodies and clothes. They gesture and interact with each other; a consistently joyful sense of vitality is inherent in each figure and as a group. It is possible they are celebrating a successful hunt; at their feet lies the figure of a stag.

One of the defining characteristics of prehistoric art is it is largely unconcerned with describing time. This began to change during the Neolithic age, however it is unclear if the animal and human figures are meant to be related. The image is planar; there is no attempt at developing space, other than planar, in fact this work is so abstract that a field/ground relationship applies. The impression of fluid motion, maybe dancing, is arranged on a compromised ground plane, creating a distinct asymmetric feel. It creates a repetitive effect; the uniform formal formatting positions this sense of motion forward as the subject matter, creating what is arguably a conceptual rather than perceptual work of art.

From a design perspective, the artist has created a fluid and harmonious work based on curved, vertical lines and organic shapes with a hollowed-out texturing effect towards their centers. The accompanying image is a detail of a larger series of similar renderings depicting a wider variety of subjects and activities than that typical of Paleolithic art: Men, running, hunting, animals and insects. The culture responsible for this work clearly valued communal effort and understood its impact on the overall well-being of its people. Earthworking, food gathering and child care are also rendered. The importance of effort and hard work is a cultural value that connects this ancient culture with modern Americans.

(artist(s) unknown, detail from Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus) (c.250). Battle Between the Romans and the Barbarians [marble deep relief]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Hyper-realism arguably applies, but a hint of the abstraction that would become characteristic of Roman expression in the coming centuries is seen in the compromising of forms in favor of maintaining the pictorial chaos characteristic of this work. It is an example of relief cut to such dramatic depth that many of the forms become detached from the source medium. This is an example of a composition sacrificing its design requirements in favor of maximizing the observer’s perspective; in effect, though the observer is stationary, she/he is viewing from a handful of angles at a single given moment. Though the energy of this work is undeniably chaotic, odds are strong that none of it was haphazardly developed. While energy is evenly diffuse, and formal development and weight are reasonably balanced, a distinct sense of tension remains. 

I believe the theme of establishing order through will power (force) inscribed in the Roman DNA is repeated both formally and conceptually. The Roman soldiers, clean-shaven with cropped hair consistently clad in uniforms, are heroic in tone and carry the emotional energy of cold-blooded, professional killers. Interspersed in contrast are the bare-chested, ungroomed and undisciplined barbarians, who from moment-to-moment are engaged in one form of defeat or another. I believe the Roman General, youthful, open-gesturing and seemingly heedless of the violence erupting in every direction around him, is the primary focal point based on location and slightly exaggerated scale.

Battle Between the Romans and the Barbarians is a case study in conflict-generating formal equivalencies: incised versus textured surfaces, figurative versus mechanical forms and disciplined versus chaotic tone. These tensions create a simply masterful void/mass value pattern that fully supports the directional energy, sense of balance and varied emotional tones of this work. The Pergemene style of ancient Greece is brought to mind more than the distant, idealized and gracefully controlled manner of the mature classic period. Conceptual and emotional energy is more unbridled, and while the composition is formally balanced, it accomplishes this through complicated and oblique angles of access and aggressively-meandering directional forces.

Hans Holbein the Younger (1540). Henry VIII [oil on wood panel]. Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome.

Holbein the Youger’s Henry VIII is a simple political portrait of the same vein as Augustus of Primaporta or John Copley Singleton’s Samuel Adams. It presents the individual in a series of contexts dictated by the patron in addition to capturing subtle traits. Henry VIII is presented as stern, virile and in control, qualities all dictators insist they possess. Certainly, subtlety is not an end he values. 

It is clear that Henry VIII wants to emphasize his stature, and he goes further. His opulent clothing further inflates his size. Perhaps the reason why his headdress is so diminutive is because his clothing diminishes his head; his tiny facial features also do this. His style of dress and elevated gaze establish the relationship between subject and observer. The compression of field of view, large canvas size, meek negative space and tension-bearing frame edges further highlight his massiveness. His height is emphasized by the general vertical flow of patterns and edges, consistent with canvas orientation.

Dense greens, lush golds and diluted oranges build an analogous color scheme. Intermediary hues are built on combinations of these base colors. Arguably texture is the dominant element, with this rendering’s patterning of semi-precious stones used to trim his blouse and gold, satin-like shoulder embellishments. This emphasis on sumptuousness and status have something of a flattening effect on what is otherwise a plastic composition.

The qualities communicated by the subject’s facial expression are emphasized by the directional motion of his robes and the half circle that frames his head. Proportions are completely overwhelmed by the man’s massive torso. However, beyond that, there is an interesting interplay between tiny and roughly geometric shapes against luxurious textile surfaces.

Though his favorite method of getting what he wanted was execution, Henry VIII is regarded as a jovial, sports and life-loving ruler that suffered the typical ravages of reasonably responsible supreme power. His sense of inadequacy was the source of motivation for his actions throughout his entire life, but they resulted on-balance in more acts of positivity than megalomania. If I were to compare him to archetypal Roman emperors, it would be Domitian rather than Nero (though both had clear love of a variety of arts) because he was more effective at administrating from afar, while events within the court were infected with an air of distrust and fear due to his capriciousness.

References

(no name given, the Biography.com website) (2017, Dec. 15^th). Henry VIII Biography. Retrieved from https://www.biography.com/people/henry-viii-9335322.

Hutton, Ronald (2011, Feb. 17^th). Henry VIII: Majesty with Menace. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/majesty_menace_01.shtml#top.

Myron (c.450 bc). Diskobolos [Roman copy is marble, original is bronze]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Diskobolos is one of the premiere examples of mature classic Greek artistic expression. The subject, captured in the pinnacle moment of tension before uncoiling and launching a heavy object into the air, is a model of Polykleitos' canon of proportions. In addition to the subject reflecting idealized physical balance, the work itself seeks perfection in balance with regard to directional thrusts, movement, stored energy and formal arrangement. In a sense, this attempt at organically balanced arrangement and weight qualifies as a work of design. 

Myron placed Diskobolos on a pedstal, a measure often used during the muture classic period, setting up a latent barrier between subject and observer. Emotional content is also controlled; the thrower's sense of concentration reflects the tension in his body. One of the remarkable traits of this work is how engaged and disengaged limbs and muscles are developed not only through form but texture as well. This supports an interlacing of a defined and blended play of light which adds life to the action playing out in front of the viewer.

Watching a woman or man engaged in what they do well provides a source of drama, of entertainment. This takes on added meaning when the performer is one of a handful of the best in the world. This is what Diskobolos communicates. It is the visual embodiment of Humanist ideals: Man as the measure of all things.

(artist(s) unknown) (l.6th). Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels [encaustic on wood]. Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt.

The development of forms in this work carries an undeniable reference to the realism preferred during the Roman Empire. In fact, realism slightly edges out abstraction, which is quite surprising because this work is decidedly Middle Byzantine. Symmetrical order prevails, of course; it is a near-horizontal reflection in perception, weight and energy. Of particular note, in my opinion, are the delicately realistic clothing folds, patterning that conforms not to the picture plane but to the surface they develop and formal modelling. Adding to the realism are the indirect gazes of all but the far-right figure, Saint George.

The pictorial arrangement of the figures is typical of Byzantine expression. The composition is exceedingly dense with little negative space. The Virgin and Child are saturated in formal choices referencing their royalty. This and the repeated framing of their forms by the throne and surrounding figures in addition to their central location place primary focus on them. The flanking Saints are wearing garb similar to Justinian's and Theodora's attendants in their mosaics at the Church of San Vitale. There is an unmistakable vertical "flow" to this work, which ends up carrying the eye upward and off the canvas as it follows the heavenward gazes of the two angels in the background.

A distinctive textural and sense of depth development, in addition to chromatic royal purples and golds, serve to harmonize this rendering. A pleasing and intuitive distribution of contrasting hues and associated values keep the eye moving around the canvas, though it does strongly favor organization. The artist has created an interesting interplay of circular forms and vertical edges. Though this work is formally and emotionally stable, it somehow avoids becoming too static.

Clearly the Virgin was a highly regarded figure to the Byzantines, inseparable from the exhaustive sense of devotion they demonstrated to her Son. In this case, she is regarded as the seat of wisdom, a throne for Christ as she was his vessel, due in large part to her association as an intermediary between heaven and Earth partially through her association with forgiveness.

Kallikrates and Iktinos (447 to 438 bc). Parthenon [marble and masonry]. Ruins of Athens.

The Parthenon represents each of the three major types of artistic expression. The marble and masonry used in its construction is refined but foundational to its appearance, creating a work of process art. Perceptually, it is undeniably pleasing, based on exacting precision in elemental arrangement and masterful calibration of proportions, spacing and repetition. Conceptually, which in my opinion outworks the other two, it represents the ancient post-and-lintel system of spanning space brought to its logical conclusion, infused with balance-based visual beauty, connecting the structure to the rationality inherent to Greek culture.

The golden ratio (1/1.618) is not used to arrange or populate elements, but a ratio organic to this structure of 4/9 is. This can be seen in the pleasing appearance of the peristyle used to define the outer edges of the structure, where eight columns populate the short axis, and 18 build the long. Harmony characterizes the alternation of architectural elements and voids, drawing the eye along each visible dimension at an even pace.

The colossal scale of the Parthenon is enhanced by a handful of illusionary practices installed during its construction. A narrowing of space between the corner columns and the ones adjacent to them, entasis and a subtle bowing of the entablatures add a hint of drama more than enlarge its appearance, although either argument could be made. The Parthenon is a very rare example of equivalencies building harmony rather than discord, as in the even distribution or rounded and straight edges, and pleasing arrangement of positive and negative space, especially in the facades.

The Parthenon fully qualifies as a master work of architectural design and exacting control over space to influence the mind-space of visitors. As a designer, the careful consideration of the purpose of each constituent part, and their influence and/or reliance on each other, represents masterful economy and rationality. A great achievement of this structure is its success at connecting architectural expression to the values of the contextual culture that was responsible for its creation, and repeated attempts to connect those values to the design of structures throughout history. It represents the idealism characteristic of classical Greece, a structure repeatedly recognized as achieving perfection in expression as close as humanly possible.

(architect(s) and designer(s) unknown) (begun 692). Dome of the Rock [octagonal mosque]. Jerusalem.

Clearly, the golden dome, which would impact the city’s skyline in the local area, references the field of paradise that its foundational devotion provides access to, both literally and conceptually. An equally remarkable trait of this work is its carefully considered relationships between part-to-part, and their relationships to create greater forms and span spaces. 

For example, light and rounded columns alternate with dense, perpendicularly-angled pilasters that perhaps function as buttresses (the columns seem much more decorative). The ratio is three-to-one in the inner and two-to-one in the outer aisles. The architects have gracefully created simultaneous curvilinear and angled forms in the collective arrangement of these weight-bearing elements, a design choice that would become thematic.

Nearly every surface, within and without, is drowning in gorgeous and conflicting floral and geometric patterning which globally develops the rich sumptuousness characteristic of Islamic expression in equal measure to the gilded surfaces of this example. Facades, voids, arcades, colonnades, the circular “flow” of the interior, all directing toward the verticality of the sanctuary, are in simply masterful harmonious, almost static (if not for the decoration) relationships one to each other. Fulfilling a list of functional and aesthetic purposes, to me this building is foremost a work of design.

The dominance of blues and golds repeat the timeless theme of peace in the afterlife. Their abundant purity and the sharply-defined forms and textures support the planar nature of surface decoration.

The Dome of the Rock, beyond its beautiful aesthetic and formal qualities, is a shrine. According to tradition, the buttress of rock, or Haram al-Sharif, housed in its sanctuary is associated with four events of great importance to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. To all, it was the location where God created Adam, where God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, and the ancient site of Solomon’s temple. To the Muslims, it is the location of Muhammad’s ascension to heaven to receive instruction from Allah. After Mecca and Medina, Jerusalem is the most sacred site of the Muslim faith.

(artist(s) unknown, attributed to Suffolk, England) (e.7th century). Sutton Hoo burial ship purse cover [gold, garnet, millefiore enamel]. The British Museum, London.

This is a strictly symmetrical work of objective abstraction that favors organization in every expressive manner. Rectilinear forms frame the composition, which is effectively two registers. They contrast in their formal relationship to nature: The top is purely geometric, the lower creatures and figures. The lower register, due to the interactions, carries the most expressive and interest-generating energy of this composition. The central figures seem to be waterfowl mounted or attacked by a Swedish hawk. They are bracketed by crouching front-view people being attacked by wolf-like creatures, also in profile. A graceful interplay of rigid and curvilinear edges is distributed throughout.

I believe the use of beasts, animals and people in vaguely conflicting interactions is a simple expression of the culture from which it came, similar to the concise, crisply-defined logotypes and signatures that are popular in American media today. Both are effortless works of design to their respective cultures. One detail that makes this work quite different from almost all work I can identify is the subordination of value. Chromatic color carries much more expressive weight, dominated by crimsons and midtones, and accented by an exquisite distribution of tinted royal blues. When the form-defining golds are incorporated, as they should be, a primary triadic color scheme is revealed.

When edges are defined by line, generally they express a difference between a surface and the space around it. In this case, similar to the radiant stained-glass expressive accomplishments of the French Gothic era, thick strokes define adjacent forms in this work. This shared-edge gestalt is primarily responsible for this works planar depth. Pictorial balance is quite static, but there are a number of subtle sources of interest in this work, including tensions generated between small and minuscule forms, reds versus golds and middling versus light tones (consistent with color).

(artist(s) unknown, located in Tipperary county, Ireland) (8th century). South Cross [stone]. Tiperrary county, Ireland.

The South Cross of Ahenny represents a form of Irish expression known as high cross, one of countless mini-monumental Christian crosses found throughout the countryside. In its time, it would have carried beautifully ornate decorative patterning and texturing similar to the abstract designs found on the Book of Kells Chi Rho Iota page. Woven throughout the designs would be small, circular cells expressing specific events, no doubt based on the Bible or Gospels. Their circular forms, repeated by the predictable arrangement of bosses, provide a strong contrast to the perpendicular rigidity that defines most of the body of this form, qualifying it as a work of design. 

Though it carries the massive impression of a menhir, the Ahenney South Cross has a canvas-like appearance in that its intended angle of view is front-on. In this regard, depending on lighting conditions (as with all work of sculpture), an interesting interplay of graduated and sharp edges reveal themselves, one providing beauty, the other a grounding framework for the composition. It is a near-reflection along both the vertical and horizontal axes.

As with the guardian Lamassu of the ancient palace of Assurnasipal II, formal development is diffuse and applied with consistent measure throughout the work. With no specific local area to dominate interest, the conceptual idea of the Ahenny Cross becomes more accessible, eternal life in paradise for those who believe in this case. Note, this starkly contrasts against the Lamassu, which instead of expressing selfless devotion, is a monument to the ego of an autocratic ruler.

A lesson of this work is the influence metallurgy had on artistic expression of early Middle Age British and Scandinavian expression. The devotional reliquaries contained in the churches and cathedrals of the time were richly decorated and bejeweled metallic boxes developed in the form of a substantial cross. The elaborate, weathered decoration, jewel-like bosses and latent reference to radiant light implied through the halo it is believed is inspired by these devotional works of expression.

Michelangelo (1501 to 1504). David [marble]. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.

Michelangelo’s David is a full revival of Greek mature classical expression in optical naturalism, emotional expression and perfect formal balance. As can be seen through the centuries-long development of Greek expression from geometric patterning (Lefkandi Centaur and Dipylon Krater), through burgeoning though stiff naturalistic expression (uncounted Kouri), to the height of naturalistic idealism of the fifth and sixth centuries bc, David taps into the ancient Greek spirit and rational Humanism without flaw. 

David is in a casual state of standing relaxation, with a contrasting expression of concentration. Formally, his slightly exaggerated contrapposto pose strikes perfect balance in motion and weight. In a formal facsimile of Praxiteles’ Doryphoros, the tension of his right leg and relaxation of his left is reversed in his arms, where his left is weight-bearing and right hangs free. This energy is again reversed with the right-to-left orientation of his head and mind.

A detail of mastery in this work is the naturalistic texturing of musculature in a state of tension or relaxation. Another is the perfect modelling of forms. When combined with texturing, very subtle surface details and blended value gradients form as a result. Energy is graceful and controlled. David is dominated by harmonies in the appearance and proportion of masses, calm formal and conceptual tension between action and static qualities, and the before-mentioned treatment of texture.

David is taking on an impossible challenge. His opponent, a professional killer, over matches him physically and in skill. By preparing for this conflict without armor, and a meek weapon with a single stone, he seems to understand in this moment of doubt that in order to win, he must not engage Goliath’s strengths, but find another path. I believe Michelangelo captures the exact moment David realizes what he must do and is mentally preparing.

(Carlo Maderno, façade; a multitude of architects, artists, designers) (1607 to 26). Saint Peter’s Basilica and Piazza [cathedral complex and plaza]. Vatican, Rome.

I believe the complex of Saint Peter’s balances the rational and relatively simple accessibility of the exterior against the lush, densely decorated and overwhelming interior. Formal complexity is never less than moderate, but when compositions and expressions are considered within their respective contexts nearly-symmetrical balance applies. The well of emotion this complex taps into is based on optical, cerebral subject matter rather than chaotic formal energy or raw emotion. 

For example, the shrine installed in the crossing is basically an open post-and-lintel structure developed to near-colossal scale. Its location is a primary focal-point of the interior representing directional equilibrium regarding space. Its surface decoration is incredibly ornate, with spiraling, scalloped posts and what amounts to an unfolding drama on the steeple. There isn’t a single surface that is not formatted with decoration, but similar to the ground-breaking pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, the surfaces and images are composed in such a manner that they maintain a harmonious, seamless relationship with their surroundings. The altar of Saint Peter’s is truly a union of architecture and sculpture.

Patterned rhythm is installed in both the façade and covered stoa that define the outer edges of the piazza. Similar to the alternation of dense and narrow in the colonnades that frame the nave of the Church of Saint Cyriakus, the façade of Saint Peter’s uses square pilasters to decorate the corners while columns are installed toward the lateral center of the surface. In addition, orderly and predictable rounded against perpendicular or angular edges are installed throughout on constituent structures, such as the domes, pediments, windows and exterior colonnades.

Literal subject matter framed by geometric designs co-exist in a state of pleasing balance, formatted with generous golden and bronze color, accented by night-blue trimming. Where images are defined by architectural surfaces or spaces, such as a blind arch or coffer, they are organized into long, arching bands, registers and architrave-like surfaces. The value pattern and beautiful texturing of the interior are inseparable.

The cathedral and piazza of Saint Peter’s is consistent with Pope Paul V’s vision for constructing a building interacting with vast interior and exterior space to house the burial site of Catholicism’s first pope. Classical forms, geometric organization, and a hybrid of expressive styles are brought into perfectly-calibrated, Apollonian, tension-free balance. The complex truly represents the vision and goal of almost all creative expression, that of organic unity. 

Jusepe de Ribera (1634). The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew (oil on canvas). National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

This masterpiece strikes a balance between fantasy and reality, of stability and teetering emotion. The rendering of textures and forms is realistic slightly beyond optical reality, but the observer is so near at hand, and the progress of the martyr’s execution creates something of a literal relationship between subject matter and observer. The compression of the field of view, full utilization of the frame, and motion created by the subject’s elongated limbs interacting with the pose and activity of the second subject create tightly controlled, cross-directional lines of motion that continually direct eye movement to the interior of the canvas. The pleading moment and unfolding execution are in direct emotional conflict with the organic, roughly figure-eight balancing motion of the scene. 

Forms and space are rendered with a severely diluted red and green complementary color scheme. Hyper-realistic modelling seems to be based on chroma rather than value adjustments, although the drama of the scene is based for the most part on sharp contrasts in value, building a pattern of sinuous and wispy textures. This modelling, value pattern and intuitive use of color temperature are responsible for the simply stunning illusion of plastic depth Ribera has created.

Similar to a camera, the foreground is in exquisite focus. Combined with a dramatic, other-worldly light source so often found in masterpieces of the era, focus is placed on the Saint’s up-tilted face, followed by his gesture. Lines of force frame this portion of the canvas, in addition to the attention of the secondary subject. Tromp l’oeil texture, diluted chroma and formal embellishment bind the canvas together, providing context for the content to stand against.

Following the establishment of Lutheranism, the Catholic church sought to win back a segment of the parishioners it lost by engaging audiences with specific, event-based depictions that contrasted against the opulence and excessiveness the church was criticized for in the first place. In the case of Saint Bartholomew, the depicted is the moments leading up to his execution, by being skinned alive. This is an exquisite work of horror; it unapologetically and beautifully places a standard-setting act of inhumanity in the center of the mind space of the observer. 

(artist(s) unknown) (b.1220 to 36). Beau Dieu [marble]. Trumeau of the central portal, west façade of the Amiens Cathedral, France.

The slow infusion of mundane accessibility that would come to be a defining characteristic of western Middle Age art is evident in Beau Dieu. Accessible, because of how realism overpowers abstraction, and the impression that the Christ-figure through gesture is welcoming or blessing each parishioner that enters the cathedral. Remote, because the spiritual weightlessness implied by the figure’s standing on two creatures (demon and baskilisk), symbolizing his triumph over death and evil. In addition, he is dramatically elevated and the edges of abstraction globally formatting his figure keep this work grounded in the conceptual rather than literal realm.

Centers of focus are mercifully simple: Gesture, facial expression, and gospel through directional forces following the edges of the figures robes. The space carrying the subject is beautifully defined, repeating the functional decorative forms and ornamentations that are used on the façade. The stiff, radiating edges and architectural context create an interesting interplay with the softer textures of the figure’s gesture and placid facial expression. The emotional and formal arrangement and resulting impression of directional forces are stable, organized and repeat the soaring vertical ornamentation of the façade. The Beau Dieu (“beautiful” or “noble God”) is an exceptional piece on an exceptional cathedral.

(artist(s) unknown, discovered in the sea off Riace, Italy) (460 to 450 bc). Warrior A or Riace Warrior A [bronze]. Museo Archeològico Nazionale, Reggio Calabria, Italy.

Warrior A is somewhat grounded in reality due to its absolute adherence to Naturalism. However, it’s hard to imagine a man with the wisdom evident in his face and expression possessing such a muscular, youthful body. In addition, the dramatic size of this work (6'8"), especially considering the time period it was created, place it further into the realm of idealized fantasy and away from the observer. I believe the creator(s) involved were foremost attempting to communicate a vision, more than building emotional impact in the observer and arranging forms with perfect balance to each other (design), though these last two goals are certainly accomplished.

Formally, Warrior A, as a mature classic work, contrasts against Pergemene works such as Gallic Chieftain Killing His Wife and Himself in at least three ways, though they overlap perfectly in abstraction and literal representation. Warrior A is dominated by fleshy, muscular textures, while Gallic Chieftain generates interest through the interplay of blended and soft against sharp and rougher textures. Formal balances contrasts sharply. One has balanced, fluid motion that is pleasing and graceful. The other displays moments of charged, deadly energy while simultaneously expressing downward directional weight due to the life once animating forms having dissipated.

Most importantly, they contrast most sharply in their emotional impact. Warrior A is calm, balanced and detached. Gallic Chieftain is emotionally chaotic, complicated by intermingling edges and twisting directional thrusts and does not invite but forces the observer to engage in and feel pity for the interaction. Warrior A takes his place along with Diskobolos and Doryphoros in the roster of proportionally idealized in-the-round male models.

(artist(s) unknown, possible copy of bronze original) (e. 1st ad). Augustus of Primaporta [marble]. Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome.

Augustus of Primaporta is much more than a larger-than-life sized (6'8") portrait of the first emperor. The exquisite idealization, references to divinity and separation from the observer by the use of a pedestal embellish the pious portion of his cult of personality. Content and emotional force are reduced to literal messages communicated through facial expression, gesture and dress. Formally, fully-developed and life-like detail typical of the Roman imperial style inspired by the Greek mature classical manner is employed. The combination of gesture and detail creates a simultaneously accessible and distant relationship between the figure and observer, of propaganda and reality.

A primary strength of this masterpiece is the illusionistically beautiful rendering of cloth, armor and flesh. Proportions relate to each other with the seamless elegance of works such as Diskobolos or Warrior A, though the impression of the emperor is of a man who is fully mature, without a hint of underdeveloped youth nor advanced age. Apollonian balance fully applies: Harmonious dominances in texturing, pious emotional content and masculinity provide context for interest based on contrast between life-like blended and defined edges. The interplay of void and mass place unique focus on the emperor’s gesture, which in turn emphasizes his calm character.

Herakleitos (2nd century). Unswept Floor [mosaic]. Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, ex Lateranese, Rome.

Unswept Floor is playfully illusionary, creating somewhat modeled subjects against a strictly flat background, which is literally the dining room floor. All objects are formatted with the same development, placing focus on what the individual objects say about the owners of the household. Celery stalks, fish, mussels, oysters, cherries and cherry pits, nuts, lobster stalks and bird claws are among the subjects. Many of these half-eaten or discarded morsels would have been luxury items in ancient Rome.

Neutral reds and reddish oranges are placed in a tetradic relationship with greens and blues. Relative warmth predominates, with moments of coolness and seemingly meandering directional forces providing some variety. Size, biomorphic shape tone, consistent focus and texturing bind the subjects together, while a complicated mass of directional forces and color purity offer variety, not to mention what the individual objects themselves are.

Works such as this show the Roman taste for casual, even playful, domestic art. It is a work detached from endorsement of the state nor ceremonial or intense religious content. Unswept Floor also illustrates the respect, or affinity, Romans had for the expressive prowess achieved by ancient Greek artists. It is a Roman copy of a similar mosaic created by the Greek artist Sasos in the second century bc in Pergamon. Much of modern knowledge of Greek expression is thanks to the respect of the Romans. Roman copies of Laocoön and His Sons, Alexander the Great Confronts Darius at the Battle of Issos, Diskobolos and this one are so true to the form and spirit of the Greek originals that positive confirmation of commentary by classical writers can in many cases be made.

(artist unknown) (100 to 120). Hawara Mummy [body preserved in the Egyptian technique and style, linen, gilded stucco buttons and portrait]. The British Museum, London.

The Hawara Mummy, one of hundreds of mummified remains from the period of Roman domination of Egypt, represents a blending of Roman and Egyptian burial traditions. The family of this young boy wanted the observer to know his face, disposition, and that he was loved. His expression is calm, suggesting that he is in a restful state in death as his disposition was placid in life. It’s possible that the break from the Roman tradition of cremation was more than simply following a local custom, but that the family fully expected their loved one to enjoy the afterlife fully intact, in the manner of Egyptian belief spanning dozens of centuries.

Vestiges of the ancient, near-Neolithic western habit of emphasizing and arching eyebrows is clear, though they are separated as they would be in reality. The detailing and alternation in value in the boy’s expressive eyes generates the most interest and relatability to the portrait. The technique of placing a realistic portrait in place of the deceased’s face is called Fayum, as in this case, a Fayum portrait, so-named after the region in Lower Egypt.

(artist(s) unknown, dynasty 19) (c.1279 to 1213 bc). Nefertari Making an Offering to Isis [wall painting]. Valley of the Queens, near Deir el-Bahri.

Communication is the only priority in this specific example. An ancient snap-shot is supported by narrative text with design consistently compromised in favor of the message and image-defining framework. The scene is a thematic description or documentation of Queen Nefertari’s sacrifice and devotion to Isis, goddess of the underworld, located in her funerary complex. Considering the age of this work, its vivid color and overall condition are remarkable.

A simple and elegant value-based split-complementary color scheme is created with oranges and yellows set against dense blues. Generally, warmth expresses subjects, while coolness provides context. Texturing, like ancient Aegean mural painting, is created through abstraction and conforms to the picture plane, not the forms they format. Considering the context of the mural adorning the queen’s burial chamber, by rendering her in an act of sacrificial humility, this work arguably describes her eternal devotion to the deity.

Planar depth is created through flattened shape, intuitive use of color temperature, gestalt and consistent detail in both shape and texture. Gesturing is directed toward the goddess. She is seated on a simple throne and colorfully dressed, while the standing figure’s clothing is colorless, although her head gear is elaborate and her posture references her royal status. Contour line is used to define shapes, and an ancient form of paragraph rules are used to organize “text”.

When compared to similar Egyptian mural-paintings, the style, medium and formatting used in Nefertari Sacrificing and Offering to Isis are for the most part consistent with earlier works. Two subtle breaks from tradition are the darker shade used to render the figure’s skin, and more embellishment in the development of their surfaces to provide a hint of modelling, though the overall effect is still planar in the traditional Egyptian sense.

(creators/architects unknown) (3rd bc). Cerveteri Burial Chamber. Cerveteri, western Italy.

The Cerveteri Burial Chamber is located west of Rome, nestled seamlessly within the countryside. It is a part of a larger series of burial chambers, designed like a small town, along access ways and huts, providing the dead with the tone of the sleepy village they were accustomed to while living. Decorations and chambers were hewn into the ground rock and developed with stucco and terra-cotta. One large work is of a man and woman in a warm exchange, reclining on a couch, created entirely of terra-cotta, over six feet wide. Images of such tenderness such as this are more positive and inviting in their relation to the afterlife.

An interesting aspect to this burial chamber is that it has a more life-affirming, celebratory tone to it, rather than dwelling on the irreplaceable loss that is associated with death. Decorations are of casual domestic items found around the home, including decorative images that would be common for the time. The plan is simple, spacious, and functional, all traits that would be appropriate for the purpose of the space.

When considering the forms globally, both functional and decorative are either heavily abstracted or geometric. There is a subtle interplay of artificial (domestic) and rectilinear forms creating a steady cross-directional pattern around the horizontal axis of the space which serves to organize it. Culturally, at least in Cerveteri, rural Romans dealt with death in a healthy, holistic manner, imagining those who had passed on enjoying the same simple pleasures they engaged in while living.

(artist unknown, Roman copy of original) (c.220 bc). Gallic Cheiftain Killing His Wife and Himself [marble, original in bronze]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

The combination of figures is rendered in stark realism. Placing them on a pedestal perhaps protects the observer somewhat, but the subject matter and content are undeniably immediate and inspire emotions of pity and discomfort. Still grasping the lifeless body of the one he loves, the man is less than a moment from ending his own life. The figures are identifiable as non-Greek by their hair style, however the woman’s gown could easily be Greek.

While the subject matter is decidedly Pergamene, formal choices line up with classical mature traits with some consistency. The medium is marble, but the appearance of texturing is soft and warm on fleshy surfaces, whooly with stronger edges on clothed surfaces. In most lighting situations, this builds a subtle, interest-generating value pattern, or at least interplay of values, that is defined by both sharp and blended edges, established and yielding textures.

Formal development is diffuse, leaving the individual activities to dictate most of where the observer’s attention rests: the tragic, lifeless expression of the woman, horizontally-oriented patterning of her clothing folds, and the twisting, energy-generating motion of the man’s arms plunging the gladius into his chest. The almost jagged, complicated interplay of limbs, edges and energy forms an analogous, supportive relationship to this masterpiece’s emotional density.

Depending on the expert asked, The Pergamene style is possibly the first to establish Expressionism. In this example, though the victory of the Greeks is celebrated, the figures are thoroughly humanized, drawing emotional energy and pity from all but the most calloused observer. The defeated subjects are rendered with sensitivity with an unmistakable sense of heroism. The artist’s ability to withdraw a specific emotional over intellectual response from the viewer is the central defining characteristic of Expressionism.

(architects unknown, located at the ancient site of Dur Sharrikun) (721 to 706 bc). Citadel and palace complex of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin [masonry and stone]. Reproduced image from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

The citadel and palace complex of Sargon II, capital complex of Darius and Xerxes in Persepolis and housing complex of Senusret II in Kahum share grid-like planning with structures organized at perpendicular angles. To over generalize, they all plan for political authority as well as religious. They deal with defense, class organization and façade decoration in different ways. The three complexes also differed in the materials used to build the bulk of their structures. It should be noted that the development of these mini-cities spans 1500 years.

The citadel of Sargon II elevates political and religious authority by placing their respective complexes (palace and temple) in the center of the citadel on a raised platform. This is the technique used in the palace of Persepolis, but not at Kahum, due to the purpose of the expanded camp being housing the labor force of a nearby pyramid, which serves both purposes. Kahum and Persepolis must also have been considered quite secure, within the control of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom and growing Persian empire respectively. Dur Sharrukin, the ancient location of Sargon II’s citadel, was expressly built for defense, and was encased in radiating fortifications. Persepolis and Sharrukin served as capitols, and the palace of Persepolis showed more advanced space-spanning techniques, namely expansive peristyle chambers.

It seems the Assyrian autocrats that based their operations at Dur Sharrukin, or at least Sargon II, believed it was more important to merge their political authority with religious than simply force obedience through absolute secular power. This is because it is believed the ziggurat of Dur Sharrukin more than any other structure dominated the skyline. Dur Sharrukin and Persepolis were amply adorned with political wall reliefs, connecting the character and traits of military and political figures with the qualities of animals. The lasting influence of civic administrative and defensive planning of Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian settlements is evident in the development of Greek base cities and the portable town-camps the Roman army were renowned for.

(artist(s) unknown, located in the palace complex of Assurnasirpal II, Nimrud) (c.850 bc). Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions [alabaster]. The British Museum, London.

The trend from prehistoric western visual expression crossing over into ancient civilization was to achieve the highest level of “understandability”, or communicative power, within technological limitations. Assurnasirpall II Killing Lions is a strong example of this. Forms are distorted and fractionally represented, though with noticeably more realism typical of Near Eastern ancient art than that of their Egyptian cousins. Almost all ancient visual communication had a political component, but even more casual works by the Egyptians had nothing more than even energy. Here, the rightward directionality, emphasized by orientation, threatens instability. It is centered by the elevated, front-and-center position of the subject and balanced distribution of forms.

The scene does not, in my opinion, communicate the idea that the king is an all-powerful intermediary between the heavens and the Earth. He seems to be engaged in sport, slaying beasts as a form of entertainment, in no real danger, escorted by foot soldiers. One lion is pierced by four arrows while another is in the throes of expiring. The horses assume a variation of the flying leap pose, in this case with hind legs grounded. Respectable depth is created through gestalt, forced into a decorative manner largely due to the medium.

As chaotic as life in ancient times was, control, and by extension safety, was a treasured commodity similar to spare time today (which probably reveals my biases). This is a primary reason why a sense of eternity, of internal and external control, was a goal of ancient visual expression. Parallel, unfocused vision, features smoothed and idealized, and interactions with deities and personified forces of nature were among the many measures used in ancient visual expression to communicate the immunity autocratic religious-political leaders had against the ravages of time. The immediacy of this work breaks from that tradition.

(artist(s) unknown, originally located in the Assyrian palace of Assurnasirpal II, Nimrud). (883 to 59 bc). Lamassu [limestone]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The Lamassu in the context of their creation were conceptually sentries guarding the entrance to the Assyrian king Assurnasirpal II’s palace. In terms of utility, they were reliefs supporting the entrance gateway. The Lamassu are heavily abstracted yet intricate figures. The simplification of forms lends further weight to figures that combine the attributes of raw animal power, fantastical inaccessibility, and human intelligence and ability to reason. They are massive, some over ten feet tall, direct and rigid, clearly meant to inspire a feeling of calm to those who reside in the palace and fear, or at least a state-sponsored insight into the character of the king, in foreign visitors. In this regard, they are propaganda.

The transition from the Neolithic to bronze/iron age expression specific to the Near East is evident in at least two ways. The figure’s body is rendered with the stiff, planar formatting consistent with works such as the Votive Statue of Gudea and the figures found on the Stele of Hammurabi. In addition, the connected, heavy brows, idealized facial features and enlarged eyes are a combination of formal choices common in ancient Near Eastern art. A break from common works of the era is the reference to time. Seen from straight-on, the figure assumes a pose of absolute militaristic discipline. Seen from the side, it strides forward at an even pace, referencing separate moments depending on the perspective of the observer.

As typical with ancient works, the degree of abstraction is directly related to the conceptual intention of the sponsor, who almost always wields considerable political and/or religious power. As is typical with most artistic expression throughout time, unbalanced harmonies overpower interest-generating equivalencies. In this case, form severity, line and shape geometry and defined, abstracted texture bind while the conceptual combination of human, fanastical and animal subjects demand interest (not to mention the dramatic size of the figures).

(artist unknown, from Lefkandi, Euboea) (l.10th bc). Lefkandi Centaur [terra-cotta figure, 14⅛"]. Archaeological Museum, Eretria, Greece.

The development of plastic and decorative forms is deliberate in arrangement and static in terms of emotional content. There is some unevenness, which offers a hint of figurative imperfection amid the order, keeping it from appearing absolutely static. The Lefkandi Centaur is heavily influenced by and a superb example of the ancient Greek Proto-Geometric period, which expands from approximately 1050 to 900 bc, followed by the Geometric period proper, widely accepted to have ended two hundred years later. 

Geometric, non-figurative line more than shape develops the surface decoration of this figure. They are arranged in horizontal register-like motifs across the body, implying muscle or possibly clothing. Shapes are differentiated by two polarized and restricted values. Their decorative nature is based on planar development, gestalt and definition. The manner of abstraction is uniform throughout, probably leaving focus on the recognizability of its head and face, and placid emotional state. While geometric motifs underlay the harmonious character of this work, interest is centered on their decorative contrast against the slightly more life-like, figurative formatting of the plastic forms. Interest is also generated by the stark differences in value.

This figure had a specific ceremonial purpose. It was discovered in pieces buried in a cemetery for not one but a number of people. Centaurs were generally regarded as representing the chaotic nature of the human psyche, and mankind’s inability to control its emotions. It’s possible that as a part of the burial ritual, the destruction of the figure was a ritualistic message of the deceased’s gravity and consistent character. 

Apologies

Over the past five days things have moved pretty fast. I flew to a couple of cities and back home for two job interviews with what can only be described as success, and yesterday I got completely caught up in higher priorities. I forgot to post an essay, and I apologize for that. The least I can do is post one on Sunday to make up for it, which I intend on doing. So, all of this effort, memorization, study and skills development truly paid off. I'm a designer again.

(architects undocumented, due to the extensive time period in which this structure was developed) (begun 1220 to 36). Amiens Cathedral, west facade [masonry]. Amiens, France.

Distribution of voids and masses is foundational to the development of a value pattern (as much as it can apply) to architectural facades. That said, there is a definitive, incised character to edge development and the distribution of shadows and light-gathering planes on this structure. The interplay of moderately iconic figures, curved versus rigid ornamental motifs, horizontal organization, vertical energy and sumptuous global texturing provide both stability and movement. In addition, contrasting a taller tower with perpendicular lines of force against a shorter tower with more variation in angularity creates an asymmetrical facade. This is an extremely rare formal choice throughout most of western architectural tradition up to the modern age.

Clearly the western facade of the Amiens Catherdral qualifies for design. Individual patterns are developed within their own contexts: Close-framed and individualized figures, delicately narrow windows and ornate portals create horizontal letters and words while the patterns they forge create vertically-oriented phrases. Frames are embedded within frames; global and synonymous decoration merges to create sensitive textural surfaces out of an uncompromisingly solid medium. One of the foundations of beauty that characerises this cathedral's facade is the unbalanced ratio of curved and angled to perpendicular edges.

The disjointed and centuries-long development of this structure is the source of its unbalanced appearance. Initiated in the 13th century, it was not considered to be complete until the 15th. The sculpture that decorates the structure, especially those that greet the practitioner upon entering any of the three portals, was developed with budding realistic idealization based on the iconic flare that characterized the early Byzantine and dark ages. The stylistic and ornate standard set by the Amiens cathedral, and the 13th-century workshop that developed the statues of the lower levels, led to a Gothic sub-style known as the Amiens to become recognized and sought out throughout Western Europe during the time.

(architects unknown) (late first century bc). Pont du Gard [concrete and masonry]. Nîmes, France.

Precise balance characterizes the development of this structure both in mathematical, utilitarian terms and in its visually expressive qualities. The rhythmic simplicity of repeated arch-forms and consistent arrangement of constituents create what I would argue is a process rather than perceptual work. The arrangement and pacing of the upper-most arcade repeats the steady rhythm of the flowing water it carries. There is a remarkable interplay of rigid and curved forms moving along its axis. The distribution of positive and negative space is primarily responsible for this structure’s beauty, but for all of this, utility is foremost.

Structures such as the Pont du Gard, Basilica Ulpia, Pantheon and Colosseum are examples of the respect Romans had for habitable comfort, rational governance, faith and public entertainment. They are massive facsimiles of typical structures found in most Roman towns. Many of these structures have survived for centuries, based on simple forms formatted with a specific manner of expression. They reflect an emphasis on rationality, balance and order in the execution of their expressed purpose and the ease with which they reside in their surroundings.

(architects unknown) (consecrated 973). Church of Saint Cyriakus [stone masonry]. Gernrode, Germany.

In most ways, the Church of Saint Cyriakus is typical of basilica-plan churches in basic structure: A portal introduces the open space of the nave, orienting attention to the sanctuary. Basilicas of classical antiquity actually allowed more light to pour in; this one has a massive, fortress-like quality to it. Developments separating this structure from earlier basilicas include the elaboration of the front portal into a full westwork, and the bracketing of the transept by two sharply-pinacled towers that dominate the overall flow of solid and empty space inherent to the structure. Another unique characteristic of this church is the abbreviated clerestory.

A major binding measure is the interior and exterior repeating of two functional arches inscribed in a larger, blind arch. The arrangement of masonry shows clear forethought and creates a harmonizing texture throughout the facade. An interplay of medium and tiny openings helps to break up the rigid, bastion-like tone of the facade, which heavily favors mass. Simplicity is repeated in the nave, which supports the directional emphasis on the apse, one of two sources of rich decorative development in an otherwise spartan formatting of flat planes. The other is the ceiling, which is built on cross-directional timber and adorned with abstracted, iconic decorations consistent in tone to that of the apse.