(Carlo Maderno, façade; a multitude of architects, artists, designers) (1607 to 26). Saint Peter’s Basilica and Piazza [cathedral complex and plaza]. Vatican, Rome.

I believe the complex of Saint Peter’s balances the rational and relatively simple accessibility of the exterior against the lush, densely decorated and overwhelming interior. Formal complexity is never less than moderate, but when compositions and expressions are considered within their respective contexts nearly-symmetrical balance applies. The well of emotion this complex taps into is based on optical, cerebral subject matter rather than chaotic formal energy or raw emotion. 

For example, the shrine installed in the crossing is basically an open post-and-lintel structure developed to near-colossal scale. Its location is a primary focal-point of the interior representing directional equilibrium regarding space. Its surface decoration is incredibly ornate, with spiraling, scalloped posts and what amounts to an unfolding drama on the steeple. There isn’t a single surface that is not formatted with decoration, but similar to the ground-breaking pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, the surfaces and images are composed in such a manner that they maintain a harmonious, seamless relationship with their surroundings. The altar of Saint Peter’s is truly a union of architecture and sculpture.

Patterned rhythm is installed in both the façade and covered stoa that define the outer edges of the piazza. Similar to the alternation of dense and narrow in the colonnades that frame the nave of the Church of Saint Cyriakus, the façade of Saint Peter’s uses square pilasters to decorate the corners while columns are installed toward the lateral center of the surface. In addition, orderly and predictable rounded against perpendicular or angular edges are installed throughout on constituent structures, such as the domes, pediments, windows and exterior colonnades.

Literal subject matter framed by geometric designs co-exist in a state of pleasing balance, formatted with generous golden and bronze color, accented by night-blue trimming. Where images are defined by architectural surfaces or spaces, such as a blind arch or coffer, they are organized into long, arching bands, registers and architrave-like surfaces. The value pattern and beautiful texturing of the interior are inseparable.

The cathedral and piazza of Saint Peter’s is consistent with Pope Paul V’s vision for constructing a building interacting with vast interior and exterior space to house the burial site of Catholicism’s first pope. Classical forms, geometric organization, and a hybrid of expressive styles are brought into perfectly-calibrated, Apollonian, tension-free balance. The complex truly represents the vision and goal of almost all creative expression, that of organic unity. 

Jusepe de Ribera (1634). The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew (oil on canvas). National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

This masterpiece strikes a balance between fantasy and reality, of stability and teetering emotion. The rendering of textures and forms is realistic slightly beyond optical reality, but the observer is so near at hand, and the progress of the martyr’s execution creates something of a literal relationship between subject matter and observer. The compression of the field of view, full utilization of the frame, and motion created by the subject’s elongated limbs interacting with the pose and activity of the second subject create tightly controlled, cross-directional lines of motion that continually direct eye movement to the interior of the canvas. The pleading moment and unfolding execution are in direct emotional conflict with the organic, roughly figure-eight balancing motion of the scene. 

Forms and space are rendered with a severely diluted red and green complementary color scheme. Hyper-realistic modelling seems to be based on chroma rather than value adjustments, although the drama of the scene is based for the most part on sharp contrasts in value, building a pattern of sinuous and wispy textures. This modelling, value pattern and intuitive use of color temperature are responsible for the simply stunning illusion of plastic depth Ribera has created.

Similar to a camera, the foreground is in exquisite focus. Combined with a dramatic, other-worldly light source so often found in masterpieces of the era, focus is placed on the Saint’s up-tilted face, followed by his gesture. Lines of force frame this portion of the canvas, in addition to the attention of the secondary subject. Tromp l’oeil texture, diluted chroma and formal embellishment bind the canvas together, providing context for the content to stand against.

Following the establishment of Lutheranism, the Catholic church sought to win back a segment of the parishioners it lost by engaging audiences with specific, event-based depictions that contrasted against the opulence and excessiveness the church was criticized for in the first place. In the case of Saint Bartholomew, the depicted is the moments leading up to his execution, by being skinned alive. This is an exquisite work of horror; it unapologetically and beautifully places a standard-setting act of inhumanity in the center of the mind space of the observer. 

(artist(s) unknown) (b.1220 to 36). Beau Dieu [marble]. Trumeau of the central portal, west façade of the Amiens Cathedral, France.

The slow infusion of mundane accessibility that would come to be a defining characteristic of western Middle Age art is evident in Beau Dieu. Accessible, because of how realism overpowers abstraction, and the impression that the Christ-figure through gesture is welcoming or blessing each parishioner that enters the cathedral. Remote, because the spiritual weightlessness implied by the figure’s standing on two creatures (demon and baskilisk), symbolizing his triumph over death and evil. In addition, he is dramatically elevated and the edges of abstraction globally formatting his figure keep this work grounded in the conceptual rather than literal realm.

Centers of focus are mercifully simple: Gesture, facial expression, and gospel through directional forces following the edges of the figures robes. The space carrying the subject is beautifully defined, repeating the functional decorative forms and ornamentations that are used on the façade. The stiff, radiating edges and architectural context create an interesting interplay with the softer textures of the figure’s gesture and placid facial expression. The emotional and formal arrangement and resulting impression of directional forces are stable, organized and repeat the soaring vertical ornamentation of the façade. The Beau Dieu (“beautiful” or “noble God”) is an exceptional piece on an exceptional cathedral.

(artist(s) unknown, discovered in the sea off Riace, Italy) (460 to 450 bc). Warrior A or Riace Warrior A [bronze]. Museo Archeològico Nazionale, Reggio Calabria, Italy.

Warrior A is somewhat grounded in reality due to its absolute adherence to Naturalism. However, it’s hard to imagine a man with the wisdom evident in his face and expression possessing such a muscular, youthful body. In addition, the dramatic size of this work (6'8"), especially considering the time period it was created, place it further into the realm of idealized fantasy and away from the observer. I believe the creator(s) involved were foremost attempting to communicate a vision, more than building emotional impact in the observer and arranging forms with perfect balance to each other (design), though these last two goals are certainly accomplished.

Formally, Warrior A, as a mature classic work, contrasts against Pergemene works such as Gallic Chieftain Killing His Wife and Himself in at least three ways, though they overlap perfectly in abstraction and literal representation. Warrior A is dominated by fleshy, muscular textures, while Gallic Chieftain generates interest through the interplay of blended and soft against sharp and rougher textures. Formal balances contrasts sharply. One has balanced, fluid motion that is pleasing and graceful. The other displays moments of charged, deadly energy while simultaneously expressing downward directional weight due to the life once animating forms having dissipated.

Most importantly, they contrast most sharply in their emotional impact. Warrior A is calm, balanced and detached. Gallic Chieftain is emotionally chaotic, complicated by intermingling edges and twisting directional thrusts and does not invite but forces the observer to engage in and feel pity for the interaction. Warrior A takes his place along with Diskobolos and Doryphoros in the roster of proportionally idealized in-the-round male models.

(artist(s) unknown, possible copy of bronze original) (e. 1st ad). Augustus of Primaporta [marble]. Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome.

Augustus of Primaporta is much more than a larger-than-life sized (6'8") portrait of the first emperor. The exquisite idealization, references to divinity and separation from the observer by the use of a pedestal embellish the pious portion of his cult of personality. Content and emotional force are reduced to literal messages communicated through facial expression, gesture and dress. Formally, fully-developed and life-like detail typical of the Roman imperial style inspired by the Greek mature classical manner is employed. The combination of gesture and detail creates a simultaneously accessible and distant relationship between the figure and observer, of propaganda and reality.

A primary strength of this masterpiece is the illusionistically beautiful rendering of cloth, armor and flesh. Proportions relate to each other with the seamless elegance of works such as Diskobolos or Warrior A, though the impression of the emperor is of a man who is fully mature, without a hint of underdeveloped youth nor advanced age. Apollonian balance fully applies: Harmonious dominances in texturing, pious emotional content and masculinity provide context for interest based on contrast between life-like blended and defined edges. The interplay of void and mass place unique focus on the emperor’s gesture, which in turn emphasizes his calm character.

Herakleitos (2nd century). Unswept Floor [mosaic]. Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, ex Lateranese, Rome.

Unswept Floor is playfully illusionary, creating somewhat modeled subjects against a strictly flat background, which is literally the dining room floor. All objects are formatted with the same development, placing focus on what the individual objects say about the owners of the household. Celery stalks, fish, mussels, oysters, cherries and cherry pits, nuts, lobster stalks and bird claws are among the subjects. Many of these half-eaten or discarded morsels would have been luxury items in ancient Rome.

Neutral reds and reddish oranges are placed in a tetradic relationship with greens and blues. Relative warmth predominates, with moments of coolness and seemingly meandering directional forces providing some variety. Size, biomorphic shape tone, consistent focus and texturing bind the subjects together, while a complicated mass of directional forces and color purity offer variety, not to mention what the individual objects themselves are.

Works such as this show the Roman taste for casual, even playful, domestic art. It is a work detached from endorsement of the state nor ceremonial or intense religious content. Unswept Floor also illustrates the respect, or affinity, Romans had for the expressive prowess achieved by ancient Greek artists. It is a Roman copy of a similar mosaic created by the Greek artist Sasos in the second century bc in Pergamon. Much of modern knowledge of Greek expression is thanks to the respect of the Romans. Roman copies of Laocoön and His Sons, Alexander the Great Confronts Darius at the Battle of Issos, Diskobolos and this one are so true to the form and spirit of the Greek originals that positive confirmation of commentary by classical writers can in many cases be made.

(artist unknown) (100 to 120). Hawara Mummy [body preserved in the Egyptian technique and style, linen, gilded stucco buttons and portrait]. The British Museum, London.

The Hawara Mummy, one of hundreds of mummified remains from the period of Roman domination of Egypt, represents a blending of Roman and Egyptian burial traditions. The family of this young boy wanted the observer to know his face, disposition, and that he was loved. His expression is calm, suggesting that he is in a restful state in death as his disposition was placid in life. It’s possible that the break from the Roman tradition of cremation was more than simply following a local custom, but that the family fully expected their loved one to enjoy the afterlife fully intact, in the manner of Egyptian belief spanning dozens of centuries.

Vestiges of the ancient, near-Neolithic western habit of emphasizing and arching eyebrows is clear, though they are separated as they would be in reality. The detailing and alternation in value in the boy’s expressive eyes generates the most interest and relatability to the portrait. The technique of placing a realistic portrait in place of the deceased’s face is called Fayum, as in this case, a Fayum portrait, so-named after the region in Lower Egypt.

(artist(s) unknown, dynasty 19) (c.1279 to 1213 bc). Nefertari Making an Offering to Isis [wall painting]. Valley of the Queens, near Deir el-Bahri.

Communication is the only priority in this specific example. An ancient snap-shot is supported by narrative text with design consistently compromised in favor of the message and image-defining framework. The scene is a thematic description or documentation of Queen Nefertari’s sacrifice and devotion to Isis, goddess of the underworld, located in her funerary complex. Considering the age of this work, its vivid color and overall condition are remarkable.

A simple and elegant value-based split-complementary color scheme is created with oranges and yellows set against dense blues. Generally, warmth expresses subjects, while coolness provides context. Texturing, like ancient Aegean mural painting, is created through abstraction and conforms to the picture plane, not the forms they format. Considering the context of the mural adorning the queen’s burial chamber, by rendering her in an act of sacrificial humility, this work arguably describes her eternal devotion to the deity.

Planar depth is created through flattened shape, intuitive use of color temperature, gestalt and consistent detail in both shape and texture. Gesturing is directed toward the goddess. She is seated on a simple throne and colorfully dressed, while the standing figure’s clothing is colorless, although her head gear is elaborate and her posture references her royal status. Contour line is used to define shapes, and an ancient form of paragraph rules are used to organize “text”.

When compared to similar Egyptian mural-paintings, the style, medium and formatting used in Nefertari Sacrificing and Offering to Isis are for the most part consistent with earlier works. Two subtle breaks from tradition are the darker shade used to render the figure’s skin, and more embellishment in the development of their surfaces to provide a hint of modelling, though the overall effect is still planar in the traditional Egyptian sense.

(creators/architects unknown) (3rd bc). Cerveteri Burial Chamber. Cerveteri, western Italy.

The Cerveteri Burial Chamber is located west of Rome, nestled seamlessly within the countryside. It is a part of a larger series of burial chambers, designed like a small town, along access ways and huts, providing the dead with the tone of the sleepy village they were accustomed to while living. Decorations and chambers were hewn into the ground rock and developed with stucco and terra-cotta. One large work is of a man and woman in a warm exchange, reclining on a couch, created entirely of terra-cotta, over six feet wide. Images of such tenderness such as this are more positive and inviting in their relation to the afterlife.

An interesting aspect to this burial chamber is that it has a more life-affirming, celebratory tone to it, rather than dwelling on the irreplaceable loss that is associated with death. Decorations are of casual domestic items found around the home, including decorative images that would be common for the time. The plan is simple, spacious, and functional, all traits that would be appropriate for the purpose of the space.

When considering the forms globally, both functional and decorative are either heavily abstracted or geometric. There is a subtle interplay of artificial (domestic) and rectilinear forms creating a steady cross-directional pattern around the horizontal axis of the space which serves to organize it. Culturally, at least in Cerveteri, rural Romans dealt with death in a healthy, holistic manner, imagining those who had passed on enjoying the same simple pleasures they engaged in while living.

(artist unknown, Roman copy of original) (c.220 bc). Gallic Cheiftain Killing His Wife and Himself [marble, original in bronze]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

The combination of figures is rendered in stark realism. Placing them on a pedestal perhaps protects the observer somewhat, but the subject matter and content are undeniably immediate and inspire emotions of pity and discomfort. Still grasping the lifeless body of the one he loves, the man is less than a moment from ending his own life. The figures are identifiable as non-Greek by their hair style, however the woman’s gown could easily be Greek.

While the subject matter is decidedly Pergamene, formal choices line up with classical mature traits with some consistency. The medium is marble, but the appearance of texturing is soft and warm on fleshy surfaces, whooly with stronger edges on clothed surfaces. In most lighting situations, this builds a subtle, interest-generating value pattern, or at least interplay of values, that is defined by both sharp and blended edges, established and yielding textures.

Formal development is diffuse, leaving the individual activities to dictate most of where the observer’s attention rests: the tragic, lifeless expression of the woman, horizontally-oriented patterning of her clothing folds, and the twisting, energy-generating motion of the man’s arms plunging the gladius into his chest. The almost jagged, complicated interplay of limbs, edges and energy forms an analogous, supportive relationship to this masterpiece’s emotional density.

Depending on the expert asked, The Pergamene style is possibly the first to establish Expressionism. In this example, though the victory of the Greeks is celebrated, the figures are thoroughly humanized, drawing emotional energy and pity from all but the most calloused observer. The defeated subjects are rendered with sensitivity with an unmistakable sense of heroism. The artist’s ability to withdraw a specific emotional over intellectual response from the viewer is the central defining characteristic of Expressionism.

(architects unknown, located at the ancient site of Dur Sharrikun) (721 to 706 bc). Citadel and palace complex of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin [masonry and stone]. Reproduced image from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

The citadel and palace complex of Sargon II, capital complex of Darius and Xerxes in Persepolis and housing complex of Senusret II in Kahum share grid-like planning with structures organized at perpendicular angles. To over generalize, they all plan for political authority as well as religious. They deal with defense, class organization and façade decoration in different ways. The three complexes also differed in the materials used to build the bulk of their structures. It should be noted that the development of these mini-cities spans 1500 years.

The citadel of Sargon II elevates political and religious authority by placing their respective complexes (palace and temple) in the center of the citadel on a raised platform. This is the technique used in the palace of Persepolis, but not at Kahum, due to the purpose of the expanded camp being housing the labor force of a nearby pyramid, which serves both purposes. Kahum and Persepolis must also have been considered quite secure, within the control of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom and growing Persian empire respectively. Dur Sharrukin, the ancient location of Sargon II’s citadel, was expressly built for defense, and was encased in radiating fortifications. Persepolis and Sharrukin served as capitols, and the palace of Persepolis showed more advanced space-spanning techniques, namely expansive peristyle chambers.

It seems the Assyrian autocrats that based their operations at Dur Sharrukin, or at least Sargon II, believed it was more important to merge their political authority with religious than simply force obedience through absolute secular power. This is because it is believed the ziggurat of Dur Sharrukin more than any other structure dominated the skyline. Dur Sharrukin and Persepolis were amply adorned with political wall reliefs, connecting the character and traits of military and political figures with the qualities of animals. The lasting influence of civic administrative and defensive planning of Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian settlements is evident in the development of Greek base cities and the portable town-camps the Roman army were renowned for.

(artist(s) unknown, located in the palace complex of Assurnasirpal II, Nimrud) (c.850 bc). Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions [alabaster]. The British Museum, London.

The trend from prehistoric western visual expression crossing over into ancient civilization was to achieve the highest level of “understandability”, or communicative power, within technological limitations. Assurnasirpall II Killing Lions is a strong example of this. Forms are distorted and fractionally represented, though with noticeably more realism typical of Near Eastern ancient art than that of their Egyptian cousins. Almost all ancient visual communication had a political component, but even more casual works by the Egyptians had nothing more than even energy. Here, the rightward directionality, emphasized by orientation, threatens instability. It is centered by the elevated, front-and-center position of the subject and balanced distribution of forms.

The scene does not, in my opinion, communicate the idea that the king is an all-powerful intermediary between the heavens and the Earth. He seems to be engaged in sport, slaying beasts as a form of entertainment, in no real danger, escorted by foot soldiers. One lion is pierced by four arrows while another is in the throes of expiring. The horses assume a variation of the flying leap pose, in this case with hind legs grounded. Respectable depth is created through gestalt, forced into a decorative manner largely due to the medium.

As chaotic as life in ancient times was, control, and by extension safety, was a treasured commodity similar to spare time today (which probably reveals my biases). This is a primary reason why a sense of eternity, of internal and external control, was a goal of ancient visual expression. Parallel, unfocused vision, features smoothed and idealized, and interactions with deities and personified forces of nature were among the many measures used in ancient visual expression to communicate the immunity autocratic religious-political leaders had against the ravages of time. The immediacy of this work breaks from that tradition.

(artist(s) unknown, originally located in the Assyrian palace of Assurnasirpal II, Nimrud). (883 to 59 bc). Lamassu [limestone]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The Lamassu in the context of their creation were conceptually sentries guarding the entrance to the Assyrian king Assurnasirpal II’s palace. In terms of utility, they were reliefs supporting the entrance gateway. The Lamassu are heavily abstracted yet intricate figures. The simplification of forms lends further weight to figures that combine the attributes of raw animal power, fantastical inaccessibility, and human intelligence and ability to reason. They are massive, some over ten feet tall, direct and rigid, clearly meant to inspire a feeling of calm to those who reside in the palace and fear, or at least a state-sponsored insight into the character of the king, in foreign visitors. In this regard, they are propaganda.

The transition from the Neolithic to bronze/iron age expression specific to the Near East is evident in at least two ways. The figure’s body is rendered with the stiff, planar formatting consistent with works such as the Votive Statue of Gudea and the figures found on the Stele of Hammurabi. In addition, the connected, heavy brows, idealized facial features and enlarged eyes are a combination of formal choices common in ancient Near Eastern art. A break from common works of the era is the reference to time. Seen from straight-on, the figure assumes a pose of absolute militaristic discipline. Seen from the side, it strides forward at an even pace, referencing separate moments depending on the perspective of the observer.

As typical with ancient works, the degree of abstraction is directly related to the conceptual intention of the sponsor, who almost always wields considerable political and/or religious power. As is typical with most artistic expression throughout time, unbalanced harmonies overpower interest-generating equivalencies. In this case, form severity, line and shape geometry and defined, abstracted texture bind while the conceptual combination of human, fanastical and animal subjects demand interest (not to mention the dramatic size of the figures).

(artist unknown, from Lefkandi, Euboea) (l.10th bc). Lefkandi Centaur [terra-cotta figure, 14⅛"]. Archaeological Museum, Eretria, Greece.

The development of plastic and decorative forms is deliberate in arrangement and static in terms of emotional content. There is some unevenness, which offers a hint of figurative imperfection amid the order, keeping it from appearing absolutely static. The Lefkandi Centaur is heavily influenced by and a superb example of the ancient Greek Proto-Geometric period, which expands from approximately 1050 to 900 bc, followed by the Geometric period proper, widely accepted to have ended two hundred years later. 

Geometric, non-figurative line more than shape develops the surface decoration of this figure. They are arranged in horizontal register-like motifs across the body, implying muscle or possibly clothing. Shapes are differentiated by two polarized and restricted values. Their decorative nature is based on planar development, gestalt and definition. The manner of abstraction is uniform throughout, probably leaving focus on the recognizability of its head and face, and placid emotional state. While geometric motifs underlay the harmonious character of this work, interest is centered on their decorative contrast against the slightly more life-like, figurative formatting of the plastic forms. Interest is also generated by the stark differences in value.

This figure had a specific ceremonial purpose. It was discovered in pieces buried in a cemetery for not one but a number of people. Centaurs were generally regarded as representing the chaotic nature of the human psyche, and mankind’s inability to control its emotions. It’s possible that as a part of the burial ritual, the destruction of the figure was a ritualistic message of the deceased’s gravity and consistent character. 

Apologies

Over the past five days things have moved pretty fast. I flew to a couple of cities and back home for two job interviews with what can only be described as success, and yesterday I got completely caught up in higher priorities. I forgot to post an essay, and I apologize for that. The least I can do is post one on Sunday to make up for it, which I intend on doing. So, all of this effort, memorization, study and skills development truly paid off. I'm a designer again.

(architects undocumented, due to the extensive time period in which this structure was developed) (begun 1220 to 36). Amiens Cathedral, west facade [masonry]. Amiens, France.

Distribution of voids and masses is foundational to the development of a value pattern (as much as it can apply) to architectural facades. That said, there is a definitive, incised character to edge development and the distribution of shadows and light-gathering planes on this structure. The interplay of moderately iconic figures, curved versus rigid ornamental motifs, horizontal organization, vertical energy and sumptuous global texturing provide both stability and movement. In addition, contrasting a taller tower with perpendicular lines of force against a shorter tower with more variation in angularity creates an asymmetrical facade. This is an extremely rare formal choice throughout most of western architectural tradition up to the modern age.

Clearly the western facade of the Amiens Catherdral qualifies for design. Individual patterns are developed within their own contexts: Close-framed and individualized figures, delicately narrow windows and ornate portals create horizontal letters and words while the patterns they forge create vertically-oriented phrases. Frames are embedded within frames; global and synonymous decoration merges to create sensitive textural surfaces out of an uncompromisingly solid medium. One of the foundations of beauty that characerises this cathedral's facade is the unbalanced ratio of curved and angled to perpendicular edges.

The disjointed and centuries-long development of this structure is the source of its unbalanced appearance. Initiated in the 13th century, it was not considered to be complete until the 15th. The sculpture that decorates the structure, especially those that greet the practitioner upon entering any of the three portals, was developed with budding realistic idealization based on the iconic flare that characterized the early Byzantine and dark ages. The stylistic and ornate standard set by the Amiens cathedral, and the 13th-century workshop that developed the statues of the lower levels, led to a Gothic sub-style known as the Amiens to become recognized and sought out throughout Western Europe during the time.

(architects unknown) (late first century bc). Pont du Gard [concrete and masonry]. Nîmes, France.

Precise balance characterizes the development of this structure both in mathematical, utilitarian terms and in its visually expressive qualities. The rhythmic simplicity of repeated arch-forms and consistent arrangement of constituents create what I would argue is a process rather than perceptual work. The arrangement and pacing of the upper-most arcade repeats the steady rhythm of the flowing water it carries. There is a remarkable interplay of rigid and curved forms moving along its axis. The distribution of positive and negative space is primarily responsible for this structure’s beauty, but for all of this, utility is foremost.

Structures such as the Pont du Gard, Basilica Ulpia, Pantheon and Colosseum are examples of the respect Romans had for habitable comfort, rational governance, faith and public entertainment. They are massive facsimiles of typical structures found in most Roman towns. Many of these structures have survived for centuries, based on simple forms formatted with a specific manner of expression. They reflect an emphasis on rationality, balance and order in the execution of their expressed purpose and the ease with which they reside in their surroundings.

(architects unknown) (consecrated 973). Church of Saint Cyriakus [stone masonry]. Gernrode, Germany.

In most ways, the Church of Saint Cyriakus is typical of basilica-plan churches in basic structure: A portal introduces the open space of the nave, orienting attention to the sanctuary. Basilicas of classical antiquity actually allowed more light to pour in; this one has a massive, fortress-like quality to it. Developments separating this structure from earlier basilicas include the elaboration of the front portal into a full westwork, and the bracketing of the transept by two sharply-pinacled towers that dominate the overall flow of solid and empty space inherent to the structure. Another unique characteristic of this church is the abbreviated clerestory.

A major binding measure is the interior and exterior repeating of two functional arches inscribed in a larger, blind arch. The arrangement of masonry shows clear forethought and creates a harmonizing texture throughout the facade. An interplay of medium and tiny openings helps to break up the rigid, bastion-like tone of the facade, which heavily favors mass. Simplicity is repeated in the nave, which supports the directional emphasis on the apse, one of two sources of rich decorative development in an otherwise spartan formatting of flat planes. The other is the ceiling, which is built on cross-directional timber and adorned with abstracted, iconic decorations consistent in tone to that of the apse.

Apollodorus of Damascus, commissioned by Emperor Trajan (113). Basilica Ulpia [marble and concrete]. Rome.

The basilica-plan of structure construction is as fundamental to understanding western expression as the post-and-lintel system or hieratic scale. Christian houses of worship would be based on the basilica template, as represented by the Basilica Ulpia, for over a millennium. In fact, the Basilica Ulpia is built on the massive, colossal scale present in the Roman DNA and takes its place with other constructs of monumental Roman achievement such as the Flavian Amphitheatre and Pantheon.

The Basilica Ulpia is based on simplified and elegant geometric constituents: tiles, colonnades, arcades, coffers and entablatures. The nave ran along the long axis of the rectangular plan: 385 by 182 feet. Visitors entered through one of the many entrances running along the length of the wider dimension. Unfortunately, this monumental construction has not survived, and we only have accounts and its foundations as a record.

White marble and gleaming tile would nearly blind a visitor on a clear day at noon, the clerestory (or possibly gallery) allowing daylight and a constant flow of fresh air to flood the space. The upper level would have covered the aisles and allowed for the surrounding achievement structures to be seen from within. The ceiling, something often overlooked, was one of the remarkable achievements of the Basilica Ulpia. Constructed of weight-relieving timber spanning as much as 80 feet, it housed a cavernous space that was consistent with the elegant, simple beauty of the interior.

The purpose of the basilica was to serve as a court of law. Unlike Christian adaptations of the plan, this example was bracketed by apses on both ends of the wide dimension which would house the judges. Christian plans would remove the perpendicularly-oriented entrances from the aisles and swap one apse for a narthex which served as the new entrance. This realignment of traffic and access would place full focus on the remaining apse, which would continue to house the focus of the proceedings.

Dictators are defined by massive and fragile egos that require recognition for greatness regardless of whether this demand is justified. In the case of Trajan, the monuments and praise are justified. He clearly had the best intentions of the state in his heart: He expanded the breadth of Rome’s borders its greatest extent, commissioned civic development and beautification of the capital and oversaw a period of remarkable peace, excepting the wars of expansion he initiated or continued, of course.

Commissioned by Emperor Vespasian (72 to 80). Flavian Amphitheatre [marble, metal and concrete]. Rome.

"Have you ever seen anything like that before? I did not know men could build such things." Juba, fictional character portrayed by Djimon Hounsou from the 2000 film Gladiator.

When the Flavian Amphitheatre was completed, it was the single-largest arena in Europe and another of a long list of justifications to the Roman way of thinking that Rome was the center of the world. It would’ve had an undeniable impact on the skyline, noise and traffic in the city. As a work extolling the might of the nation-state, its significance is multilayered. To the Roman psyche, it served as a reaction against the infamous emperor Nero, who had been developing a private pleasure palace on the site upon his assassination in 68. To demonstrate his affinity for the people as an emperor for the people, Vespasian chose this site once reserved to massage the narcissism of his predecessor to build the cities’ greatest civic arena.

The Colosseum also references the tolerant spirit of the Roman manner of conduct and the culture’s insistence on integrating rather than stamping out alternate perspectives even while it brutally subjugated them. The architectural orders are Tuscan (referencing Etruscan civilization), Ionic and Corinthian (Greek) from bottom-to-top, with Corinthian pilasters on the attic, representing the adaptation of the innovations of peer-cultures to their architecture.

It was designed with ease of movement to be the foremost consideration. It is entered through 56 vaults spanning its entire diameter and upon completion was capable of housing 55,000 (some sources say 70,000) spectators. Once inside, space is maximized with simple and predictable barrel vaults leading to and away from the aisles. The entrance arcades are repeated on the next two floors, creating a pleasing and rhythmic pattern of solid versus empty space and terminal values, exemplifying order and the Roman mastery of construction.

There are at least two amazing achievements of the Flavian Amphitheatre mentioned here. First, the Romans accomplished its construction with machinery no more complicated than man-sized pulley systems, overwhelmingly through sheer man power, although it is widely believed unwilling. Second, it accomplishes its primary goal of providing thousands of spectators an uninterrupted and comfortable view of the arena floor by using space to maximum effect. At the same time, it provides ease of access and a visually pleasing appearance that extols order and communicates the values the Empire purported to hold dear.

Commissioned by Emperor Hadrian (118 to 28). Pantheon [brick, concrete, marble]. Rome.

The Romans created with an eye towards size in the age-old spirit of cultural-to-cultural competitiveness. Unlike the Egyptians, who for centuries created on a colossal scale simply for its own sake, the Romans did so with more utility and because the success of their culture necessitated projects such as the Colosseum and this. One of this structure’s remarkable traits is its reliance on simple, geometric constituents and decoration. The Pantheon is the Crystal Palace of its time in its expression of mankind’s reliance on form and geometry to control nature. To Hadrian’s credit, this was not an exercise in self-aggrandizement; the inscription across the architrave states: “Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, who was consul three times.” 
In the context of the time of its construction, the idea was to create a portal for mortals to interface with the gods; it was a space that both the living and supernaturally all-powerful could occupy. Such a purpose clearly required the construction of a building that achieved the nearest expression of perfection humanly possible while creating something that had never seen the light of day. As a matter of fact, perfection was not achieved because the pediment is approximately ten feet lower than the height it was originally intended to be. In addition, the expressed, specific purpose of the Pantheon (“all of the [Olympian] Gods”) is not strictly known, but widely believed to be a sort of mausoleum for the pagan collection of gods and goddesses.  

Humans tend to associate the concept of “deity” with dramatic size, but in this case this building’s scale, the sense of insignificance we all feel is emphasized. In this state of mind, awe-inspiring beauty is expressed upon entering the central chamber; the cavernous space is built on a pleasing, vertically-oriented and perfect circle. Weight-relieving coffers decorate the dome as the eye travels upward, to the oculus at the building’s pinnacle, allowing light to shine down and illuminate the interior. Without a doubt, the combination of volume, structure, order, pattern and light would have an undeniable impact on even the most casual observer.

Barry, Charles and Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore (1836 to 60). British Houses of Parliament. Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England, London.

As with all architectural achievement, the British House of Parliament seeks to indicate its relationship to the common woman or man. Conceptually, the rhythmic, vertical pacing of the façade as seen from the Thames implies consistency and clock-work, intricate movement between the parts that oversee the government. Bastions soar with aspiration to the sky and terminate at tiny points. A basic principle of British statecraft is conflict; the party that does not win the prime minister seat occupies the official position titled “The Opposition” to check the activities of the government. Conflict is not referenced in the construction of this building. 

The choice to revive the Gothic style was not only because of its obvious beauty but also because the foundations of what would become the British state were laid during this era (11^th century). In addition, masters of the time believed their culture was responsible for the origination of the Gothic style, but this was true in most of the major cultural centers of Europe. Remarkable organic balance is represented by the emphasis of upward movement timed in sideways organization; the manner in which the pinnacles pierce the sky and consistent arrangement of windows represents balance between solid and empty space. An unmistakable and effortless sense of beauty and order is inspired in even the most casual observer. 

Formatting is universally developed and dramatic with a single exception: The reference to time. It is a repeated theme; an impression of it is created through the before-mentioned pacing, but it is also literally referenced by the watchtower. What was a style to most in the Gothic tradition was much more to the creators of this complex. While the industrial age reduced production times and had an increased capacity to produce wealth, something of the organic, individualistic qualities in the act of creation had been lost. Industrial products, at least to Barry and Pugin, were garish and void of beauty. They believed the requirement of personal expression in products that were not mass produced by machines as represented in the Middle Ages were preferable than what the advancements of their era provided and represented. 

References

(The United Kingdom Government website) (n.d.). How Government Works. Retrieved from: https://www.gov.uk/government/how-government-works

(The United Kingdom Parliament website) (n.d.). How Parliament Works. Retrieved from: http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/

Francis Bacon (1954). Head Surrounded by Sides of Beef [oil on canvas]. The Art Institute of Chicago.

A theme of death is repeated in this work. The hanging animal carcasses are clear, but the figure has a distinctly dehumanized, ghoulish appearance. This combination of subjects is placed in a dark and simplified cubical space, like a prison cell, or coffin. Bacon seems to be stating that the treatment of animals in their consumption is a form of cannibalization, and that in so doing we begin a transformation into flesh-eating monsters and lose our humanity. 

The rough and somewhat indistinct rendering of the scene leaves an impression that what we are seeing is shifting from the world of the living and that of the dead. The subjects have a wraith-like character which is enhanced by the manic expression of the man, the violent treatment of the animal halves and the uncompromising geometry of the space they occupy. The surrounding geometric darkness is possibly the spirit-world, or land of the dead, dimension of where these figures are arranged in the world of the living. 

Bacon is using an analogous color scheme of purples, reds and oranges. Pictorial depth is built on the overlapping nature of the subjects and a space roughly based on single-point perspective. While the canvas is stable, the slightly elevated viewer perspective, emotional content and equivalent dimensions of the canvas give this work an unmistakable sense of asymmetry and tension. Most formal choices bind; emotional and conceptual choices edge the composition towards disorder. A consistent and disturbing development of the subjects creates some question as to what the center of focus should be, clearing up room for that emotional content. 

World War II laid the foundation to Bacon’s artistic style. He served as an air raid warded for the British during Nazi Luftwaffe bombings of London and the horrors he witnessed are directly translated into his visual expressions. This sense of terror is enhanced by Bacon’s formal choices and the desperate screams reflecting off of the harsh walls of the chamber the figure is trapped within.

(artists unknown, located in Rome, Italy) (113 to 116 or after 117). Trajan’s Column [marble relief].

Trajan’s Column is the precursor to the comic book. The entire campaign for the Roman conquest of Dacia is documented in a series of scenes (cells) that progress in roughly linear time to the pinnacle. The consistent progression of events is simply ingenious, reminding a modern spectator of the masterfully choreographed date scene in Scorsese’s Goodfellas. As with all works commissioned by the state, objectively it is nothing more than propaganda. None of Trajan’s setbacks are reasonably depicted. Individual figures are developed in a realistic style reminiscent of the south façade of the Ara Pacis. 

Conflict is not the only action captured; so too are mundane activities like logistics and fort building, which in turn are commentary on the achievements of the Army and their commander. This work’s relationship to the observer is not literal nor is it detached. It’s relationship to reality similarly straddles the fantastical divide. The lower half of registers, each about three feet high, were intended to be studied from ground-level. The upper registers, about four feet each, were designed for viewing from the elevated galleries at the time. It also serves as a tomb for the emperor and his wife, Pompeia Plotina. 

Design is evident to consolidate the figures, their interactions and events within the limitations of the registers. Rhythm between figurative and mechanical, artificial areas is clearly installed. A mild form of hieratic scale creates a size difference between contextual elements and scene subjects. More than any other principle, careful attention is paid to patterning and formal pacing. Formal and conceptual order support the narrative function of this monument masterfully. Trajan’s Column represents compositional sophistication in visual expression parallel to the Roman culture’s prosecution of conquest and will to organize the wilderness. 

(artists unknown, from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, Rome) (325 to 26). Constantine the Great [marble]. Palazzo del Conservatori, Rome.

Unlike master works of the Hellenistic era in ancient Greece, this statue fragment reduces emotional freedom and seeks formal and conceptual stability to communicate a carefully crafted impression about the dictator soon after his rival, Maxentius, died. It presents him as calm, in control, with a deliberate focus on the future of his nation-state and in turn concern for its citizens. The work favors idealism with respectable realism, but the progression towards the iconic, abstract style that would define western visual expression for the next several decades is quite evident. His facial features, surfaces, volumes and masses are simplified, though individual qualities are duplicated. 

It’s difficult for me to say if there is any religious content to the statue itself; Constantine is regarded as the first truly Christian emperor but of course his relationship to and timing regarding the young religion was complicated, often times based on political convenience. When it was fully assembled, the statue’s intended location was the apse of the Basilica Nova, which would have simply dominated the entirety of the volume the building encompassed. In addition, Constantine’s majestic appearance would have been amplified because it was draped in bronze. Considering these factors (scale, appearance, location), it’s not unreasonable to assume worship of this representation of Constantine during periods of his absence was a goal of this work’s creation. 

Byzantine culture always had a tension between whether or not its parishioners worshiped the scriptures or the images representing them; in this case, idealization and scale create an undeniable break in the accessibility between the man, who it can be argued is rendered as something more than man, and the common person. His sheer size would make anyone feel diminished in the same manner as the spaces spanned by Christian cathedrals. This is more than a portrait.

Update

Hello everyone, I apologize for not posting an essay yesterday. The job hunt is heating up and it's going a little better that I expected it would. To make up for it, I'll post one tomorrow. I still need to build the support images for the essays I've posted after Birth of Liquid Desires.

The analysis model is developing nicely too. The first full draft is really close to being completed; the fifth and sixth steps need a final scrub, and then it's the less intense steps, like one, two and nine. Once I've finished the third grouping of essays, the first draft of the model should be done too. At that point my daily studies involving fine arts will be an overview of the different eras and their stylistic traits. I've been working on that here and there since before Christmas.

The technical and applied side of my development is going well; I've learned a ton more about PS. I feel like some day soon I'll be able to get back into painting, but right now my priorities are the job hunt and the essays. Between that, taking care of the house and fitness, I'm really surprised at how full my days are. I go to bed each night simply exhausted but I cannot deny I'm getting a lot better as a designer. I know I don't have to put any pressure on myself to get hired as one; I feel like that'll happen really soon.

I'll talk to everyone tomorrow when I post my next essay!

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus (532 to 37). Church of Hagia Sophia. Istanbul.

A series of colossal two- and three-dimensional forms interlock and interact to create the structure. The basic layout is a Greek cross-plan church with each aisle extended to match the length of the nave. One of the remarkable traits of this church (now a museum) is how one of the sphere-forming structures is split in half along an equal and perpendicular angle to the axis of the nave. The arrangement of space is typical of most cathedrals in that it is subordinate to and direct toward the nave, followed by the apse. What can only be perfect symmetrical formal balance is struck along the axis of the nave. 
At the time of its construction, the Hagia Sophia no doubt transported each parishioner to a realm split between Earth and heaven. The impressions the sheer scale, the almost magical way the windows were installed into its mass offering illumination, and lushness of interior decoration must have inspired a sensation akin to floating in the field of heaven. The decoration, light sources and rhythmic interplay of light and dense tones create a uniquely pleasing and ordered visual experience. Rounded edges complement and interact with soaring, vertical forms and edges. Formal balance of the classical sense is as developed as the sheer volumes of space this building encompasses. 

The fact that it took five years to build this structure is astonishing. The dome is supported by a pendentive system of arches, whereby four cardinal direction-facing portals form a circle at the upper expanses for it to rest on. This would become a commonn method of supporting domes and developing suspended spherical space by Byzantines afterward. 

One of the Hagia Sophia’s great achievements was to solve one of the conflicts that had afflicted church construction up to this point: Architects have always wanted to inspire awe through the spanning of vast and soaring space while at the same time maintaining focus on the sanctuary. The Hagia Sophia accomplishes this; upon entering the naos, attention is immediately lifted upward along the verticals, curves and circular gaps to the vast, floating dome, and then down to the apse at the distant end of the church. Justinian, Anthemius and Isidoros were able to conceptualize and construct a structure that was truly able to demonstrate the Byzantine culture’s mastery of geometry and architecture in the creation of this church.

John Singleton Copley (1770 to 72). Samuel Adams [oil on canvas]. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

This painting commemorates Samuel Adams’ confrontation of the political authority in the territory, Governor Hutchinson. After the Boston Tea Party, where British soldiers were responsible for the deaths of five American citizens, Adams argues that all occupying British forces be withdrawn from the city based on reason and the rule of law as reflected by his gesture to the documents at the bottom of the canvas. While modelling is illusionary and the rendering fully qualifies as Naturalism, this painting is not idealized. This supports the relatability and urgency of its subject matter. 

A strong argument could be made for a complementary orangish-red versus bluish-green color strategy based on both value and purity. Dense and slightly diluted reds could make the browns, reverse these values to build the parchments, heavily tinted peaches could make the flesh tones and the background has a distinct greenish cast to it. The discordance in color created between Adams’ clothing and the background reinforces their value-based spatial separation. The use of value overall possesses more than vestiges from tonal treatments from the previous century in terms of form and emotion. 

The sharp formal focus and intent gaze of Adams generates primary interest. The directional thrust of his gesture directs residual attention towards the idealization represented by the documents piled at the bottom of the canvas. His gesture, stance and expression communicate quite clearly that he knows his demands are justified and based on reason as established by the very laws that govern the territory. A challenge is documented, not an attempt at intimidation. He is basing his demand for the removal of a militant police force on reason, not an emotional reaction. He carries in his right hand a charter signed by local citizens who base their call to action and support of Adams’ arguments on rationality, not a violent outburst of mob-rule. In this way and in a more general sense, this painting is consistent with the ideals of the Enlightenment.