(artist(s) unknown) (concecrated 550, various developments to structure and decoration spanning from the 6th to 9th centuries). The Transfiguration of Christ with Saint Apollinaris, First Bishop of Ravenna [apsidal mosaic]. Church of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe.

The top-most register depicts the representative icons of the four apostles (from left to right, Eagle/John, Man/Matthew, Lion/Mark, Bull/Luke) oriented towards Christ. Their proximity to heaven is implied by the cloud patterning that builds the background of the register. Heaven is connected to the temporal world in the next register down, which continues the cloud motif. The entire composition conforms to the architectural forms, voids and surfaces they are expressed on, and this formal strategy is especially ingenious in this register, where the upper arch of the apse is used to represent to Earth (though, of course, in the Middle Ages it was not common knowledge that the world was round). Civilization is implied in the second register by the cubic forms that bracket it, with a flock gathering beneath the direct, staring eye of Christ. 

Saint Apollinaris gathers his flock in the apse, in similar fashion to Christ. He resides in an Eden-like field with rhythmically-paced plants and animals gesturing toward the true center of interest of this combination of mosaics. This is the Christian cross, floating in a portal, surrounded by stars, the true path to the eternal afterlife. The bottom-most register alternates between full-standing figures and windows, two arcades interwoven together. The global composition is quite static and organized, communicating through symbols and images, not words, directly to the observer.

Formally, though the composition is typical to the planar style of the Byzantines, there is a degree of modelling available consistent with such ancient works as Queen Nefertari Making an Offering to Isis. Texturing is a combination of deliberate rendering within shapes blended with the qualities native to mosaic, possibly the greatest harmonizing measure of this series. Registers-within-registers, a form of reverse diminution is used in the flora and fauna that surround the front-and-center Saint Apollinaris. Intuitive temperature and purity counter this, maintaining the shallow sense of depth.

Directional accessways and flow are as organized as this works sense of symmetry: The eye is directed vertically along the stacking of registers, and then at perpendicular angles according to the lateral, rhythmic pacing of subjects. This work certainly favors formal harmony over energy, but there are interest-generating measures. Most notable are tensions created between subject sizes, occasional sharp contrasts in value and chroma, and rigid versus curvilinear forms which conform gracefully to the medium.

(Neolithic shelter painting, artist(s) unknown) (4000 to 2000 bc). People and Animals [rock painting]. Cogul, Lérida, Spain.

The rock-shelter painting People and Animals is a work of objective abstraction. Figures, mostly women, are severely reduced to angled and curved lines and planar geometric shapes. The waist-hip ratio of several of the figures emphasizes their womanhood, as does the nature of the strokes that create their bodies and clothes. They gesture and interact with each other; a consistently joyful sense of vitality is inherent in each figure and as a group. It is possible they are celebrating a successful hunt; at their feet lies the figure of a stag.

One of the defining characteristics of prehistoric art is it is largely unconcerned with describing time. This began to change during the Neolithic age, however it is unclear if the animal and human figures are meant to be related. The image is planar; there is no attempt at developing space, other than planar, in fact this work is so abstract that a field/ground relationship applies. The impression of fluid motion, maybe dancing, is arranged on a compromised ground plane, creating a distinct asymmetric feel. It creates a repetitive effect; the uniform formal formatting positions this sense of motion forward as the subject matter, creating what is arguably a conceptual rather than perceptual work of art.

From a design perspective, the artist has created a fluid and harmonious work based on curved, vertical lines and organic shapes with a hollowed-out texturing effect towards their centers. The accompanying image is a detail of a larger series of similar renderings depicting a wider variety of subjects and activities than that typical of Paleolithic art: Men, running, hunting, animals and insects. The culture responsible for this work clearly valued communal effort and understood its impact on the overall well-being of its people. Earthworking, food gathering and child care are also rendered. The importance of effort and hard work is a cultural value that connects this ancient culture with modern Americans.

(artist(s) unknown, detail from Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus) (c.250). Battle Between the Romans and the Barbarians [marble deep relief]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Hyper-realism arguably applies, but a hint of the abstraction that would become characteristic of Roman expression in the coming centuries is seen in the compromising of forms in favor of maintaining the pictorial chaos characteristic of this work. It is an example of relief cut to such dramatic depth that many of the forms become detached from the source medium. This is an example of a composition sacrificing its design requirements in favor of maximizing the observer’s perspective; in effect, though the observer is stationary, she/he is viewing from a handful of angles at a single given moment. Though the energy of this work is undeniably chaotic, odds are strong that none of it was haphazardly developed. While energy is evenly diffuse, and formal development and weight are reasonably balanced, a distinct sense of tension remains. 

I believe the theme of establishing order through will power (force) inscribed in the Roman DNA is repeated both formally and conceptually. The Roman soldiers, clean-shaven with cropped hair consistently clad in uniforms, are heroic in tone and carry the emotional energy of cold-blooded, professional killers. Interspersed in contrast are the bare-chested, ungroomed and undisciplined barbarians, who from moment-to-moment are engaged in one form of defeat or another. I believe the Roman General, youthful, open-gesturing and seemingly heedless of the violence erupting in every direction around him, is the primary focal point based on location and slightly exaggerated scale.

Battle Between the Romans and the Barbarians is a case study in conflict-generating formal equivalencies: incised versus textured surfaces, figurative versus mechanical forms and disciplined versus chaotic tone. These tensions create a simply masterful void/mass value pattern that fully supports the directional energy, sense of balance and varied emotional tones of this work. The Pergemene style of ancient Greece is brought to mind more than the distant, idealized and gracefully controlled manner of the mature classic period. Conceptual and emotional energy is more unbridled, and while the composition is formally balanced, it accomplishes this through complicated and oblique angles of access and aggressively-meandering directional forces.

Hans Holbein the Younger (1540). Henry VIII [oil on wood panel]. Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome.

Holbein the Youger’s Henry VIII is a simple political portrait of the same vein as Augustus of Primaporta or John Copley Singleton’s Samuel Adams. It presents the individual in a series of contexts dictated by the patron in addition to capturing subtle traits. Henry VIII is presented as stern, virile and in control, qualities all dictators insist they possess. Certainly, subtlety is not an end he values. 

It is clear that Henry VIII wants to emphasize his stature, and he goes further. His opulent clothing further inflates his size. Perhaps the reason why his headdress is so diminutive is because his clothing diminishes his head; his tiny facial features also do this. His style of dress and elevated gaze establish the relationship between subject and observer. The compression of field of view, large canvas size, meek negative space and tension-bearing frame edges further highlight his massiveness. His height is emphasized by the general vertical flow of patterns and edges, consistent with canvas orientation.

Dense greens, lush golds and diluted oranges build an analogous color scheme. Intermediary hues are built on combinations of these base colors. Arguably texture is the dominant element, with this rendering’s patterning of semi-precious stones used to trim his blouse and gold, satin-like shoulder embellishments. This emphasis on sumptuousness and status have something of a flattening effect on what is otherwise a plastic composition.

The qualities communicated by the subject’s facial expression are emphasized by the directional motion of his robes and the half circle that frames his head. Proportions are completely overwhelmed by the man’s massive torso. However, beyond that, there is an interesting interplay between tiny and roughly geometric shapes against luxurious textile surfaces.

Though his favorite method of getting what he wanted was execution, Henry VIII is regarded as a jovial, sports and life-loving ruler that suffered the typical ravages of reasonably responsible supreme power. His sense of inadequacy was the source of motivation for his actions throughout his entire life, but they resulted on-balance in more acts of positivity than megalomania. If I were to compare him to archetypal Roman emperors, it would be Domitian rather than Nero (though both had clear love of a variety of arts) because he was more effective at administrating from afar, while events within the court were infected with an air of distrust and fear due to his capriciousness.

References

(no name given, the Biography.com website) (2017, Dec. 15^th). Henry VIII Biography. Retrieved from https://www.biography.com/people/henry-viii-9335322.

Hutton, Ronald (2011, Feb. 17^th). Henry VIII: Majesty with Menace. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/majesty_menace_01.shtml#top.

Myron (c.450 bc). Diskobolos [Roman copy is marble, original is bronze]. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Diskobolos is one of the premiere examples of mature classic Greek artistic expression. The subject, captured in the pinnacle moment of tension before uncoiling and launching a heavy object into the air, is a model of Polykleitos' canon of proportions. In addition to the subject reflecting idealized physical balance, the work itself seeks perfection in balance with regard to directional thrusts, movement, stored energy and formal arrangement. In a sense, this attempt at organically balanced arrangement and weight qualifies as a work of design. 

Myron placed Diskobolos on a pedstal, a measure often used during the muture classic period, setting up a latent barrier between subject and observer. Emotional content is also controlled; the thrower's sense of concentration reflects the tension in his body. One of the remarkable traits of this work is how engaged and disengaged limbs and muscles are developed not only through form but texture as well. This supports an interlacing of a defined and blended play of light which adds life to the action playing out in front of the viewer.

Watching a woman or man engaged in what they do well provides a source of drama, of entertainment. This takes on added meaning when the performer is one of a handful of the best in the world. This is what Diskobolos communicates. It is the visual embodiment of Humanist ideals: Man as the measure of all things.

(artist(s) unknown) (l.6th). Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels [encaustic on wood]. Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt.

The development of forms in this work carries an undeniable reference to the realism preferred during the Roman Empire. In fact, realism slightly edges out abstraction, which is quite surprising because this work is decidedly Middle Byzantine. Symmetrical order prevails, of course; it is a near-horizontal reflection in perception, weight and energy. Of particular note, in my opinion, are the delicately realistic clothing folds, patterning that conforms not to the picture plane but to the surface they develop and formal modelling. Adding to the realism are the indirect gazes of all but the far-right figure, Saint George.

The pictorial arrangement of the figures is typical of Byzantine expression. The composition is exceedingly dense with little negative space. The Virgin and Child are saturated in formal choices referencing their royalty. This and the repeated framing of their forms by the throne and surrounding figures in addition to their central location place primary focus on them. The flanking Saints are wearing garb similar to Justinian's and Theodora's attendants in their mosaics at the Church of San Vitale. There is an unmistakable vertical "flow" to this work, which ends up carrying the eye upward and off the canvas as it follows the heavenward gazes of the two angels in the background.

A distinctive textural and sense of depth development, in addition to chromatic royal purples and golds, serve to harmonize this rendering. A pleasing and intuitive distribution of contrasting hues and associated values keep the eye moving around the canvas, though it does strongly favor organization. The artist has created an interesting interplay of circular forms and vertical edges. Though this work is formally and emotionally stable, it somehow avoids becoming too static.

Clearly the Virgin was a highly regarded figure to the Byzantines, inseparable from the exhaustive sense of devotion they demonstrated to her Son. In this case, she is regarded as the seat of wisdom, a throne for Christ as she was his vessel, due in large part to her association as an intermediary between heaven and Earth partially through her association with forgiveness.

Kallikrates and Iktinos (447 to 438 bc). Parthenon [marble and masonry]. Ruins of Athens.

The Parthenon represents each of the three major types of artistic expression. The marble and masonry used in its construction is refined but foundational to its appearance, creating a work of process art. Perceptually, it is undeniably pleasing, based on exacting precision in elemental arrangement and masterful calibration of proportions, spacing and repetition. Conceptually, which in my opinion outworks the other two, it represents the ancient post-and-lintel system of spanning space brought to its logical conclusion, infused with balance-based visual beauty, connecting the structure to the rationality inherent to Greek culture.

The golden ratio (1/1.618) is not used to arrange or populate elements, but a ratio organic to this structure of 4/9 is. This can be seen in the pleasing appearance of the peristyle used to define the outer edges of the structure, where eight columns populate the short axis, and 18 build the long. Harmony characterizes the alternation of architectural elements and voids, drawing the eye along each visible dimension at an even pace.

The colossal scale of the Parthenon is enhanced by a handful of illusionary practices installed during its construction. A narrowing of space between the corner columns and the ones adjacent to them, entasis and a subtle bowing of the entablatures add a hint of drama more than enlarge its appearance, although either argument could be made. The Parthenon is a very rare example of equivalencies building harmony rather than discord, as in the even distribution or rounded and straight edges, and pleasing arrangement of positive and negative space, especially in the facades.

The Parthenon fully qualifies as a master work of architectural design and exacting control over space to influence the mind-space of visitors. As a designer, the careful consideration of the purpose of each constituent part, and their influence and/or reliance on each other, represents masterful economy and rationality. A great achievement of this structure is its success at connecting architectural expression to the values of the contextual culture that was responsible for its creation, and repeated attempts to connect those values to the design of structures throughout history. It represents the idealism characteristic of classical Greece, a structure repeatedly recognized as achieving perfection in expression as close as humanly possible.

(architect(s) and designer(s) unknown) (begun 692). Dome of the Rock [octagonal mosque]. Jerusalem.

Clearly, the golden dome, which would impact the city’s skyline in the local area, references the field of paradise that its foundational devotion provides access to, both literally and conceptually. An equally remarkable trait of this work is its carefully considered relationships between part-to-part, and their relationships to create greater forms and span spaces. 

For example, light and rounded columns alternate with dense, perpendicularly-angled pilasters that perhaps function as buttresses (the columns seem much more decorative). The ratio is three-to-one in the inner and two-to-one in the outer aisles. The architects have gracefully created simultaneous curvilinear and angled forms in the collective arrangement of these weight-bearing elements, a design choice that would become thematic.

Nearly every surface, within and without, is drowning in gorgeous and conflicting floral and geometric patterning which globally develops the rich sumptuousness characteristic of Islamic expression in equal measure to the gilded surfaces of this example. Facades, voids, arcades, colonnades, the circular “flow” of the interior, all directing toward the verticality of the sanctuary, are in simply masterful harmonious, almost static (if not for the decoration) relationships one to each other. Fulfilling a list of functional and aesthetic purposes, to me this building is foremost a work of design.

The dominance of blues and golds repeat the timeless theme of peace in the afterlife. Their abundant purity and the sharply-defined forms and textures support the planar nature of surface decoration.

The Dome of the Rock, beyond its beautiful aesthetic and formal qualities, is a shrine. According to tradition, the buttress of rock, or Haram al-Sharif, housed in its sanctuary is associated with four events of great importance to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. To all, it was the location where God created Adam, where God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, and the ancient site of Solomon’s temple. To the Muslims, it is the location of Muhammad’s ascension to heaven to receive instruction from Allah. After Mecca and Medina, Jerusalem is the most sacred site of the Muslim faith.

(artist(s) unknown, attributed to Suffolk, England) (e.7th century). Sutton Hoo burial ship purse cover [gold, garnet, millefiore enamel]. The British Museum, London.

This is a strictly symmetrical work of objective abstraction that favors organization in every expressive manner. Rectilinear forms frame the composition, which is effectively two registers. They contrast in their formal relationship to nature: The top is purely geometric, the lower creatures and figures. The lower register, due to the interactions, carries the most expressive and interest-generating energy of this composition. The central figures seem to be waterfowl mounted or attacked by a Swedish hawk. They are bracketed by crouching front-view people being attacked by wolf-like creatures, also in profile. A graceful interplay of rigid and curvilinear edges is distributed throughout.

I believe the use of beasts, animals and people in vaguely conflicting interactions is a simple expression of the culture from which it came, similar to the concise, crisply-defined logotypes and signatures that are popular in American media today. Both are effortless works of design to their respective cultures. One detail that makes this work quite different from almost all work I can identify is the subordination of value. Chromatic color carries much more expressive weight, dominated by crimsons and midtones, and accented by an exquisite distribution of tinted royal blues. When the form-defining golds are incorporated, as they should be, a primary triadic color scheme is revealed.

When edges are defined by line, generally they express a difference between a surface and the space around it. In this case, similar to the radiant stained-glass expressive accomplishments of the French Gothic era, thick strokes define adjacent forms in this work. This shared-edge gestalt is primarily responsible for this works planar depth. Pictorial balance is quite static, but there are a number of subtle sources of interest in this work, including tensions generated between small and minuscule forms, reds versus golds and middling versus light tones (consistent with color).

(artist(s) unknown, located in Tipperary county, Ireland) (8th century). South Cross [stone]. Tiperrary county, Ireland.

The South Cross of Ahenny represents a form of Irish expression known as high cross, one of countless mini-monumental Christian crosses found throughout the countryside. In its time, it would have carried beautifully ornate decorative patterning and texturing similar to the abstract designs found on the Book of Kells Chi Rho Iota page. Woven throughout the designs would be small, circular cells expressing specific events, no doubt based on the Bible or Gospels. Their circular forms, repeated by the predictable arrangement of bosses, provide a strong contrast to the perpendicular rigidity that defines most of the body of this form, qualifying it as a work of design. 

Though it carries the massive impression of a menhir, the Ahenney South Cross has a canvas-like appearance in that its intended angle of view is front-on. In this regard, depending on lighting conditions (as with all work of sculpture), an interesting interplay of graduated and sharp edges reveal themselves, one providing beauty, the other a grounding framework for the composition. It is a near-reflection along both the vertical and horizontal axes.

As with the guardian Lamassu of the ancient palace of Assurnasipal II, formal development is diffuse and applied with consistent measure throughout the work. With no specific local area to dominate interest, the conceptual idea of the Ahenny Cross becomes more accessible, eternal life in paradise for those who believe in this case. Note, this starkly contrasts against the Lamassu, which instead of expressing selfless devotion, is a monument to the ego of an autocratic ruler.

A lesson of this work is the influence metallurgy had on artistic expression of early Middle Age British and Scandinavian expression. The devotional reliquaries contained in the churches and cathedrals of the time were richly decorated and bejeweled metallic boxes developed in the form of a substantial cross. The elaborate, weathered decoration, jewel-like bosses and latent reference to radiant light implied through the halo it is believed is inspired by these devotional works of expression.

Michelangelo (1501 to 1504). David [marble]. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.

Michelangelo’s David is a full revival of Greek mature classical expression in optical naturalism, emotional expression and perfect formal balance. As can be seen through the centuries-long development of Greek expression from geometric patterning (Lefkandi Centaur and Dipylon Krater), through burgeoning though stiff naturalistic expression (uncounted Kouri), to the height of naturalistic idealism of the fifth and sixth centuries bc, David taps into the ancient Greek spirit and rational Humanism without flaw. 

David is in a casual state of standing relaxation, with a contrasting expression of concentration. Formally, his slightly exaggerated contrapposto pose strikes perfect balance in motion and weight. In a formal facsimile of Praxiteles’ Doryphoros, the tension of his right leg and relaxation of his left is reversed in his arms, where his left is weight-bearing and right hangs free. This energy is again reversed with the right-to-left orientation of his head and mind.

A detail of mastery in this work is the naturalistic texturing of musculature in a state of tension or relaxation. Another is the perfect modelling of forms. When combined with texturing, very subtle surface details and blended value gradients form as a result. Energy is graceful and controlled. David is dominated by harmonies in the appearance and proportion of masses, calm formal and conceptual tension between action and static qualities, and the before-mentioned treatment of texture.

David is taking on an impossible challenge. His opponent, a professional killer, over matches him physically and in skill. By preparing for this conflict without armor, and a meek weapon with a single stone, he seems to understand in this moment of doubt that in order to win, he must not engage Goliath’s strengths, but find another path. I believe Michelangelo captures the exact moment David realizes what he must do and is mentally preparing.