Diego Valázquez (1656). Las Meninas [oil on canvas]. Museo del Prado, Madrid.

Realism based less on the dramatic contrasts of values popular in the preceding decades characterizes this work. A hint of the fantastical is present in the oddly highlighted, mirror-like frame which straddles the distance above and between the heads of two of the girls. There is a light, playful tone in the sunlit region that is stifled by the dark, straight-edged background. The recessed doorway opens to a well-lit room that has little power to shine within the primary chamber. Near to this doorway is a weather-exposed window like the one in the foreground that has a similar illuminating power.

For all of this works authentic optical realism it is based on a spartan color palette. Valázquez’ ingenious use of value implies blues, greens and pinks that are centered on expertly diluted chroma. He has distributed a signature-like fleshy red in moments on the canvas to a subtle and graceful binding effect. This is accomplished a second time with the lateral canvas and repeating vertical edges. 

An impression of spacious volume is achieved. What is an optical foreground quickly blends into a midground and background of realism. Individualistic features are abstracted away. Colors and tonal contrasts are blended into the gloom. Lines of convergence meet at the paneled door. Relative warmth supports these depth-building measures. 

Valázquez’ use of color organically serves simultaneous purposes. A variety of whites, shadow-formatted grays, dense blues, greens and blacks unify the canvas, but his arrangement of reds and pinks generate interest. He employs the full value range, creating a muted sense of tension between his use of darks in the background and arrangement of highlights in the foreground. Lush, youthful textures subtlety overpower artificial, somewhat rough ones due to their vitality. 

The young girl below optical center is all but placed in a spotlight. She is bracketed by two older girls, one attending to her, the other demonstrating the behavior she is expected to model. A handful of gazes draw the viewer into the room with them, but hers is the only one that is not direct. In a way, a sort of reverse-hieratic scale implies her importance because of her stature and the oversized dress she wears. One of the directional forces created originates from the highlighted portrait in the far back wall, creating a secondary center of interest and drawing the viewer into the background.

I believe a word on this works complicated line-of-axis system deserves special mention. Linear perspective combined with the background grid system build lines of recession and perpendicular angularity. While these lines fall away from the observer, the direct attention of a number of the subjects pull her or him in to the canvas. The energy and orientation of elements is vertical (foreground elements), horizontal (background elements) and recessive (ceiling and right wall), creating a cubic pictorial orientation. 
It’s possible Valázquez has referenced the development of this same painting with the oversized canvas positioned along the left edge of the picture plane. It repeats the enormous scale of this work (10' 5" × 9' ½"). If so, he has blended events occurring at different times on the canvas: The subject (documenting a portrait of the girls and the event they’re about to attend), the execution of the painting itself, and respectful references to the works of others in the background canvases. 
This is a complicated painting, employing a handful of compositional strategies in a unified, interlaced manner. He masterfully blends formal and elemental tensions with equivalencies, creating that elusive balance between calm and interest all serious artists seek to achieve. Marilyn Stockstad said it much better than I ever could when she described this work as “monumental”. 

Gianlorenzo Bernini (1623). David [marble]. Galleria Borghese, Rome.

Bernini is using formal equivalencies to create a composition that twists with the threat of invading the space of the observer. Weight is placed on his right leg, effectively stabilizing his center of gravity, while his left initiates the rotational thrust moving through his shoulders and arms. Globally, a vertically-oriented, authentic balance is struck at the approximate center axis from any frontal (possibly all) viewing angle(s). 

The energy that charges this work is not only based on the twisting motion of David’s forms. Bernini uses coiling gaps between these elongated shapes to emphasize their motion. He masterfully combines his compositional choices to create a series of moments, a single athletic action, similar to Myron’s Diskobolos, with the added conceptual complication of mortality.

This work is a celebration of the power of the human form and the potential of a focused mind. Forms, surfaces and textures are stiffened and tense; even fabric takes on these characteristics. Formal choices align to place more emphasis on the energy, tone and mindset of the subject. The static forms of his body are directed toward his target. The energized forms are in mid-rotational motion, rendered at a consistent oblique angle to communicate that motion. The focus of his mind is bracketed by his coiling arm and directional thrust of his powerful legs.

Clearly viewing gaze-on with the figure would generate a new layer of tension in the viewer by taking on the role of target, or at least being in the line-of-fire. Historically, this work heralds a trend in western sculpture that would remove works from the pedestal of idealism and ground them in the same reality of the observer. Bernini has created a masterpiece of dynamic motion and energy that is simultaneously balanced and stable. 

Caterina van Hemessen (1548). Self-Portrait [oil on wood]. Öffentliche Kunstsammlung, Basel, Switzerland.

This is a work of realism with minor compositional adjustments to suit the needs of the artist. Hemessen’s choices in the use of value focus attention on her features and her activity. The vague development of the background does not define the shape of her body and arms well, with the exception of highlights on the folds of her sleeves. This isn’t necessarily a weakness, because she is respectably identifiable and the overall dense treatment of the painting binds it together.

Depth is compressed but developed beyond flatness. It is crafted through modelled value graduations and sharp contrasts that build overlapping forms. The color palette is effectively a monochromatic cool red that includes purity variations.

Van Hamessen harmonizes through dominance: Dark values and a monochromatic red color scheme. The artist’s canvas, hands and head are highlighted with the paintings only light values, emphasizing her craft, mind and creativity. It’s interesting how van Hemessen has used flesh and reds to create what would normally be a warm composition. However, this is not the case because of her use of dense tones and the coolness of the reds.

Titian (1538). Venus of Urbino [oil on canvas]. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

Realism applies, but when compared to van Eyck's Double Portrait texture splits the difference between these two works. Formal choices support and do not distract from the calm, sensual tone. Design principles are clearly present in the perpendicular treatment of edges with the exception of the model (who is still horizontally oriented). The directness of the young woman’s gaze and the bare presentation of her form are a clear attempt on Titian’s part to inspire lust.

Strong changes in value divide and organize the canvas. While subject edges are well-defined, Titian uses more subtle graduations of shading to flesh out the foreground subject. In some respects, this is counter to the primary value-establishing interest strategy, which is quite ingenious on his part. A beautiful floral motif winds it’s way through the canvas, from the cluster of flowers the model holds, through her hair and into the adornment of the background architectural elements and tapestries.

Depth in the foreground is based on modelling, the warm tones of the woman’s skin, and appropriate pictorial compression. In the background, spatial order is applied by a series of recessed rectilinear shapes that ground and define figurative shapes. Titian has pictorially blended organic, intuitive and more clinical, gestalt techniques to masterfully build the illusion of space sinking into the picture plane.

Pictorially, a roughly balanced and full value range is ingeniously applied. Polarized values (black over white) provide a kind of reverse highlighting, if you will, of the primary subject. More than any other measure, Titian has used this to cause the young woman’s hair and skin to glow with warmth. Furthermore, her form dominates the scene not only for this reason and her nudity (which are obvious), but because of her off-scale size and the recognizability of her details (more subtle). This last point is especially true of her face, the clear expression of which does as much work to set the scene’s tone as the paintinging’s use of value. The viewer is placed near to the subject, slightly elevated with the canvas reinforcing the tunneling effect of the rectilinear figures in the background.

I would not consider this a work that objectifies the female form and presents the woman as something less than human, or an object to be consumed. I would characterize this as a work that references sexual pleasure experienced by both participants. Venus of Urbino does not seem to be a prostitute, for example.

Organic unity applies to this work. Titian has masterfully blended interest and stability through both equivalency and disproportionality. For example, while both figurative and geometric shapes are relatively even, this combination is part of the reason why the subject nearly invades the observer’s personal space. On the other hand, the canvas is bound together in part by muddied, impure colors, yet the placement of contrasting reds and even the diluted background blues in greens create a more dynamic scene.

Hugo van der Goes (1474 to 76). Portinari Altarpiece (open) [tempera and oil on wood]. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

A sense of heaviness within the mind space of the observer is inspired. There is motion present, but it is implied, generated from stationary subjects and calibrated to the minimal amount required to create two centers of gravity on the slight figure of the Child, and the cluster of objects bottom-center of the canvas. While the artist does not aim to create chaos on the canvas, he successfully builds a sense of disquiet. This painting reveals the ground-breaking realism western artists had achieved in the fifteenth century, as well as the multilayered purposes behind it (message, inspiration, optical realism, formal cohesiveness).

Shapes and subject blocks are built through roughly equal measures of color and value contrast. Van der Goes uses intersecting lines of motion by arranging vertically-repeating straight edges and figurative shapes moving at roughly cross-angles to multiple lines of sight. Logical differences when the scenes are compared against each other imply separate moments of time, as though the depicted act of blessing and praying for the Messiah occupied a handful of hours in the same day. The illusion of depth is well crafted through modelling, calibration of interior shape details and hints of convergence and atmospheric perspective. Part of this blending is the somewhat subjective use of value, where tones bleed in to adjacent areas as the scenes recede.

Each scene carries the same balanced pictorial weight, resulting in a repetition of this effect when taken in combination. Vertically-oriented subjects are arranged on laterally-oriented scenes. Distortions in scale are present across all scenes. Some figures are appropriately sized, while others seem unnaturally diminished and slight. Harmonic relationships based on the dimensions of color, tone, shape type and value create an image with supernatural subject matter and optical fidelity. This groundwork presents this triptychs complicated content/tone blend foremost against it’s other components.

Secondary areas of interest are built on individual interactions. For example, the gesture and strikingly contrasting dress of the slightly haloed shepherd figure, and the interaction between the young women on the opposite panel. The observer prays with the mourners and angels, close at-hand. Shifts in place and time are organized by the individual panels.

The time periods and perspectives of the three scenes are the same. The terminal scenes show devotees and mourners praying, while the right has a procession slowly filing in to pay their respects. The lower-most mortal and immortal figures seem to be praying to a bushel of straw and decaying flowers, while the rest are gesturing to the Child. Van der Goes has subtly installed tension and confusion in this complicated work in terms of time and interest.

The terminal panels represent through well-known biblical figures the commissioners of this series of works and their families. The cluster of objects center-bottom of the middle panel require an entire essay on their own to fully explore. The bushel is of wheat; the vase is decorated with a grape and vine motif; the glass is rendered with the passage of light; there are seven columbines, dying violets, a single red lily and three irises (two white, one purple). It turns out they are soaked in symbolic meaning.

(artist(s) unknown, door panels of Parish church, Urnes, Norway). (c.1050 to 70). Urnes-Style Doorway Tracery [carved wood]. Reconstructed in Urnes, Norway.

While this work is generally abstract, creature and animal forms are recognizable, giving it a fantastic, other-worldly quality. I would argue low relief elements effectively create the background more than a field/ground relationship, however field/ground is probably more appropriate because the backdrop is a vague plane versus something recognizable. A graceful sense of motion charges the lattice, with clearly repeating strokes and blocks of negative space. This work is conceptual in design because of the impression of steady movement and grace it inspires. 
On a literal basis, all identifiable local areas are unique. In terms of energy and the elemental blending that occurs when a work is taken in overall, this work is approximately symmetrically balanced. This works uniquely curved lines create interest in two ways. First, the strokes gently vary in width, creating diffused thick/thin areas. Second, the well-orchestrated manner in which they intermingle create similarly-sized shapes of negative space that aid the patterning effect the curves create while creating interest by their unique shapes. 

Recognizability and relative size cause some of the animal-forms to attract more interest than other areas. While this places more emphasis on these forms, it does not increase their importance. Otherwise, motion is abundant but diffuse. The individual components that create this work are necessarily simple, yet the combined effect is one of lush, lively energy. The boundaries this series of panels are placed within contrast ingeniously.

The original of this relief series was installed in the eleventh century, and what is pictured was actually reconstructed in the twelveth. An exemplification of grace, carefully-calibrated elemental interweaving and control of energy, the literal subject matter is one of vicious conflict. Tiny, slender serpentine, fantastical and Earthbound creatures attack and grapple with each other. This work evidences the traditional mythological traditions of northern European cultures blending with the relatively young Christian influence. 

(artist unknown, found in Hierakonpolis, first dynasty). (c.3000 bc). Palette of Narmer [mudstone]. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

This is a work of planar abstraction. Raised forms are the foreground, the remainder (untreated) the background. A “narrative” form of energy is present, meaning local areas have a sense of direction, but overall this work is static. Shapes and registers are arranged with an ancient sense of design, versus the modern adjustment of positive/negative space. I would characterize this work as more perceptual than conceptual in spite of its narrative function.

The registers on this work are built on the arrangement of planar shapes in space, which are given roughly equivalent breathing areas. They create a visually aesthetic and laterally-flowing series of patterns. The result is appropriately legible movement with overall static balance.  Differences in shape sizes do not imply depth as much as conceptual importance. The entire work is effectively flat with the exception of a handful of subjects that overlap or intertwine.

Purely geometric forms are few; they either organize the content from a design perspective, or dominate interest through their contrasting tone. With the exception of the ratio of positive to negative space, equivalence is not used in this work, however it is an example of overall harmony created based on a handful of dominant choices.

The shining star of this work is clearly communicated through his disproportionate relative size: Pharaoh Narmer. A secondary moment of energy is the perfect circle created by the intertwining necks of two fantastical beasts, “canvas”-center of the palette’s backside.

Narmer’s crown is of upper Egypt (“up” the river). Both sides document his unification of the individual lands that would become Egypt. This work of propaganda references his legitimacy through the blessings of the gods (especially Horus) and his military skill as parallel tracks that led to his gains. What this work says about the man is up to the individual observer to decide, but this work clearly communicates the mans strength and will. In this regard alone this work is effective. It’s pictorial representation of figures, solution for arranging space and strategy for organizing depth evidences a host of formal advancements from the treatment of two-dimensional renderings characteristic of the Neolithic era.

Georges de La Tour (c.1640). Mary Magdalen with the Smoking Flame [oil on canvas]. Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

The figure of Mary Magdalen is one of devotion, to me (the interpretations are endless). This preconceived notion and my ignorance of this particular work dictate my understanding and judgement of it. She is clearly contemplative, in a state of doubtful tension. The over-enlarged candle and flame warm her, provide her with some comfort and a form of insight. This is because her mind, while in conflict, is open. I believe the objects next to the flame are the Bible, Gospels and a crucifix. The noose references the rope used to aid in supporting Christ’s weight during his execution. This item is repeated around her slightly bulky midriff. I have no idea whose skull she is cradling, but I get the impression that it demonstrates her comfort with death. |

Rich value development creates naturalism and formal drama, which is strengthened by conceptual tension. La Tour exhibits defining characteristic of Baroque visual expression: Exhaustive effort on the process and a graceful and multilayered blending of themes are slightly outshined by the masterful, illusionistic recreation of optical reality.

The rich development of value creates a circular high-key scene canvas-center and defines the pictorial depth masterfully. La Tour’s amazing skill creates illusionistically-realistic subjects that contain unmistakable mass, and his deliberate arrangement of those items tie the spatial order together. The color scheme is a monochromatic warm red with purity adjustments, suggesting latent greens are present. This choice along with the pictorial warmth aid in containing the subjects in the space defined by a single room and draw the observer into the composition.

The placement of subjects and pictorial energy of this work are radial, centered in the space between Mary’s arm and the candle. Terminal values are sharp where edges are defined; they are blended where surfaces and volumes are implied. While interest is masterfully built on content and value, La Tour has bound the canvas together using color, relatability in shape size and muddied colors.

The brooding mood, global density and warm formatting give the impression that even the space in this painting has a thick air of anxiety in it. It exhibits a masterful equivalence in even and unbalanced proportions that combine to create a gorgeous and stable scene. I appreciate the abbreviated use of symbols and artistic strategies. Unlike van Eyck’s Double Portrait, the message and mood are as unambiguous as the scene is realistic. 

Jacabo da Pontormo (1525-28). Entombment [oil and tempera on wood]. Capponi Chapel, Church of Santa Felicità, Florence.

I believe the hooded woman in agony is the Virgin. Her emotional state is made more accessible not only by her gestures but by the two figures wailing with her and the impossible energy in their drapery. The lifelessness of Christ’s form is emphasized by a reduction of color purity. The star-like light from above has the power to highlight all figures except his. The desperate sense of loss in each figure is so clearly communicated that this painting draws all all but the most calloused observer in. The lower figure bearing the weight of Chirst’s body is in an impossibly distorted pose. His crouch would not support the weight on it, and the position of his back, neck and head are unnaturally elongated. I believe this is not an error, but a compositional choice, along with his direct gaze, to draw the observer into the scene. |

Formal design and emotional energy are in equivalent proportions. While there is subtle tension in energy, design is calculated. The light source is dramatic and references are made to the supernatural, creating what I would argue is a hyper-realistic painting. Expressing the emotional states of the figures and the moment before Christ’s apotheosis are the purpose behind this work more than the unfolding of a complicated story.

The development of tenebrism experiences advancement in this painting. Value-based modelling is obvious, approaching Baroque development. In addition, a fluid fore/mid/background pictorial organization is based on value: Highlights sink to midtones, and the darkest values create the ground and sky. This sense of depth is further supported by reduction of detail and foreshortening. I would argue that the relationships of this painting’s edges, shapes, values and colors are so complicated that gestalt does not apply. 
While the canvas is vertically-oriented, the subject matter is radially balanced starting on the axis connecting the faces of the Virgin and Christ. The faces, limbs and roman arch framing device create roughly spiraling pattern of motion, ending with a direct reference to the observer. 

Figurative, organic shapes interlock and dominate the picture plane. Even artificial subjects are formatted in the same manner as the flesh. Pontormo’s application of color is delicate and rich, yet light, reinforcing the vitality and fragility of human flesh. He uses chroma and differences in relative warmth and coolness to harmonize the canvas. 

The fact that this event takes place at or after dusk is contradicted by the nearly blinding off-canvas lower-right light source. All figures are in a state of desperate emotion, emphasized by the almost chaotic and tangled arrangement of limbs, gestures, clothing folds and sight lines. Some appear to be weightless. Pontormo’s manipulation of energy and eye movement through complicated lines of motion and distortion are masterful. He has created a composition that has delicately balanced desperate emotion in conflict with light, hyper-realistic beauty.

Sandro Botticelli (1484-86). Birth of Venus [tempera and gold on canvas]. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

Along with the Bible and Gospels, classical mythology is a subject where my knowledge is not satisfactory. What I see is the moment of Venus’ birth, full-grown, as beautiful and precious as the pearl of a colossal clam. She is aware of her nakedness, about to be clothed by the attendant to her left, a nymph (ie, not mortal) I’m guessing. References to the sumptuous energy of youth, sexuality and nature are not subtle. Formally, tiny petal, leaf and wave forms create a unified and flowing pattern across the canvas. This is intermingled with meandering, spiraling lines of direction created by flesh edges, hair and billowing drapery. |

I would place this work on the tipping-point between naturalism and realism. A gentle, fragrant wind energizes the canvas; overall the composition is peaceful. Clearly Botticelli is telling a story through a captured moment based on a classical theme.

As with a majority of two-dimensional art, value does most of the work. Masses and figures seem to be drawn on, value-developed and the formatted with color after the value foundation had been laid. Shape is next in creating this works body; their free-flowing, fluid character make it easy to visualize a roman arch framing Venus’ form. The frame shape and orientation emphasize the repeating curves that organize the canvas.

Depth is in a condition of tension. Modelling is present (there are two light sources) but does not seem to contrast enough to be truly “plastic”. Fore- and background relationships are well-established but, taken individually, appear flattend and somewhat cartoonish. In the end, non-decorative space does apply. The illusionistic application of light creates a warm foreground that is uplifted from a dense, cool background.

The picture plane is horizontally organized into thirds. Each section is dominated by a single figurative block that create a closed global composition in how the terminal thirds direct attention to the central. The contrived modesty of Venus’ form is the clear center of interest. Feminine, natural shapes dominate. Equivalence in color temperature is present, but they tend to divide evenly in their placement on the foreground (warm, light) and background (cool, dense).

I do not believe Botticelli was layering Christian religious references with classical, in spite of Venus’ Eve-like qualities. A clear strength of this work is the peaceful energy that winds across the canvas through implied lines of force, pattern, fluid shape edges and emotional content. Formal organization is remarkable too in how it presents the story and requires little effort on the part of the observer to absorb the undeniable theme of beauty Botticelli has created.

Jan van Eyck (1434). Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami (according to tradition) [oil on wood]. The National Gallery of London.

Extreme sensitivity and luxury characterize this work (to me). This dual-portrait’s execution is so refined that the figures appear doll-like. Linear perspective, sumptuous and illusionary texturing, a consistent singular light source and beautifully-blended value arrangement are all present. The economic success of the couple is communicated in a contrived manner through the spatially-sensitive arrangement of small, refined items of ownership throughout the canvas. |

To properly place this work on the scale of abstraction a new category to the left of naturalism would have to be created, hyperrealism. The level of detail, in particular in the convex mirror, is likely not possible in reality. The sumptuous rendering of the subjects references the illusionary nature of this work.

The defining elemental characteristic of this work is texture. This is rarely the case because texture tends to be a supportive element, strengthening the native characteristics of primaries and formatting secondaries in proper measure to keep them from melting away. However, texture carries so much of this painting that I notice it first. Aside from the qualities it defaults to, texture establishes this works tone, does more than its share at communicating to the observer the station of this couple and provides simple aesthetic realism. Color is notable as well. To oversimplify, the direct, masculine, impure and dense left is set against the feminine, passive, complementary, pure and well-lit right.

The orientation of the figures, outer-edge framing of the portraits by planar shapes and placement of the chandelier and mirror create a work that is loosely symmetrically balanced. This is debatable, of course, because they do not reflect to the degree of Joudon’s Big Springs and there are major formatting differences.

The sumptuousness of this painting is masterfully developed by van Eyck’s painstaking, full and planned use of the value range, chroma and detail. He has reserved the lightest values to develop and frame exposed flesh. The densest tones and midtones blend together in the background to help push the portrait pair forward.

I would argue the general area around the youthful woman’s upper body is the primary center of interest in this work. Her form is highlighted by the stark contrasts in color and high key values, which are provided by the light source and used to develop her flesh. Both figures seem to be swimming in their garments, which makes the man seem slight and emphasizes the health and fertility of the woman. They are surrounded by lavishness and clearly have the means to properly provide for a large family.

It turns out that the woman is probably not pregnant, but wearing a garment in style in Flanders at the time that was designed to imitate pregnancy by layering excess clothing in the front of the body. I had an impression but far from a legitimate understanding of how complicated this painting is. Fourteenth century Flanders was more secular than most states of the time, and one of the common explanations of this painting is that it is a marriage contract. Religious themes are as numerous as symbols of wealth.

Giotto di Bondone (1305 to 1310). Virgin and Child Enthroned [tempera and gold on wood]. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

“Enthroned” is the perfect word to use to describe the subject of this work. The enlarged Virgin’s form is more substantial than the chapel that frames her and seems to cause its volume to shrink. Her dense, statue-like formatting grounds her dead-center on the canvas, and still more emphasis is placed on her by the reverent attention of the audience of angels that surrounds her. Works of this subject matter and from this relative era intimidate me because they make me feel small. |

A reasonable attempt at realism is made. The architectural elements are built with realistic consistency and envelope a sense of volume. The patterned, orderly manner of the overlapping angels and strong detail through value support this realism. This is broken by the flattened stiffness of the forms and the extreme enlargement of the primary subjects.

The formally massive figure of the Virgin pictorially dominates. Next, interlaced patterns direct the eye. In my opinion, this is this works greatest strength. Perpendicular and angled edges and lines format the picture plane and are repeated by the frame. They are in a form of balanced conflict with the perfectly circular halos layered across the central vertical third of the canvas. Last, value is reasonably developed; it’s use is typical of the time period, when its potential for providing detail and spatial enrichment is being explored by western artists.

Pictorially, this work is approximately symmetric, reflecting along a centered vertical axis. This is built on the rigid arrangement of elements and their formatting. For example, the placement of the densest values is obvious, but framed in a mirror-like design by the lightest values, specific greens and rigid, linear edges. Overall harshness, or an architectural “substantialness”, binds the canvas together.

I would argue that plastic depth characterizes this work. Personally, I am impressed by this because Giotto does not rely on the tenebristic advantages of value to build it, although this is evident, especially in the clothing details. The organized, overlapping design-related arrangement of the audience of figures, especially the halos, does the heavy lifting for establishing depth.

(artist(s) unknown, Dynasty 19 illustration from the collection of Books of the Dead) (c.1285 bc). Judgement of Hunefer Before Osiris [illuminary papyrus]. The British Museum of London.

This is a perfect example of what people think of when Egyptian visual communication is broached. It reflects the unique blend and strength of faith this culture had, their obsession with the passage from life to the next realm, their need for order and direct, multi-layered communication. While figurative proportions and space are bent and adjusted in favor of the message, there is still remarkable sensitivity to design in the lateral use of pattern, organization of graphics and what amounts to text, and visually pleasing arrangement of values. |

Objective abstraction applies; this mural documents the supernatural events of the title and is based on standardized design. In this way, concept rivals subject as its primary purpose. Pattern carries this work more than other formal details because it establishes how it will be absorbed by the observer and provides compositional organization. I believe it is fair to characterize it as achromatic because the medium provides what impure color there is to be found. This strategy is effective because the designer’s choices in building a value pattern blended with the rhythm of shapes and glyphs maximize its legibility.

Nearly planar depth is built in the typical ancient Egyptian fashion, but further supported by the size relatability between glyphs and the shapes installed in the architectural details. Color and detail schemes and the pleasant surprise of transparency combine to reinforce the this works flatness.

Fast lines of consistent measure define shapes and characters. Attributes like shape definition, size and texture bind a fluid scene, with supporting qualities like color and value providing some interest. Lateral lines, both real and implied, and repeating shapes direct attention rightward to the throned, crowned figure of Osiris. Architectural elements and the only evidence of overlapping (his attendants) further frame him.

Hunefer is today thought to be a private citizen, not a Pharaoh or other government official. He is being led by Anubis to the scales that will weigh his heart against Maat’s Feather of Truth. He then will be presented to Osiris for judgement. The two women behind him are not attendants but the goddesses Nephthys and Isis, offering the gesture of loving support characteristic of ancient Egyptian art.

This work has a lot in common with modern comic books in its firmly line-established shapes, planar nature, perpendicular organization and glyphs that serve the purpose of thought balloons in the upper-most register. As a work of design, effective is the word that best describes it. There is no doubt about what is being communicated and where visual energy is spent.

(artist(s) unknown, discovered in Cernavoda, Romania) (c.3500 bc). Cernavoda Woman and Man Figures [ceramic]. National Historical Museum of Bucharest.

The earliest forms of visual expression were inseparable from communication. Not until thousands of years had passed from the time earliest-discovered renderings were created was verbal communication reasonably disjointed from pictorial with the development of the first written languages. This combination of statuettes clearly rests on the conceptual, emotional needs of the creator; their forms are reduced to severe simplification, similar to modern styles found in urban centers. A clear somber mood is projected in their poses and how their details are developed. They inspire prostration, contemplative reflectiveness and the sense of frailty and isolation that afflicts mankind across independent cultures. |

Both figures are built on forms with angular qualities. The female figure is complicated with rounded, curved planes and edges, emphasizing the unique qualities of the female form. These are both conceptual works of expression, based on the extreme simplification of their forms and details, and how effectively their activities and moods are communicated. 

The only details are minor and applied to the heads to make them more relatable. By implying a state of mind so well, an indistinct reference to time is made. These qualities place most of the visual emphasis on the figures’ heads. They are laterally balanced when viewed straight-on, with the female figure displaying more dynamic energy. The male figure is completely static. The implication of their similar sizes is that both are of equal importance. 

The actual intention of the creator, if she or he had one beyond occupying boredom, is unknown. So, depending on how the couple is arranged, their “meaning” changes. They were uncovered at a grave site, which tinges their content with moods of loss and uncertainty. These figures were created over five millennia ago, but the relatability of their expressions and poses has not lost any meaning. 

Pietro Lorenzetti (c.1335 to 1342). Birth of the Virgin Triptych [tempera on wood]. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena.

The figures in this work display some of the slight, flat character and gestural movements of middle-age art. There is clear development of three-dimensional space, however, that defeats any planar nature the subjects carry. The division of the overall work into three vertically-narrow scenes (a "triptych") is ingenious as well. The left scene, through planes, arches and webbings, shows the most developed spatial depth. Spatial order is alternately built in the right scene, the most vertically-oriented, with the dual receding pattern development. The primary subject and the most figurative interaction occurs in the heiratically-dominant central panel. | 
An honest attempt at naturalism is made in this piece but mature plastic modeling, value development and the overall depth-establishing strategies have not been developed yet. In fact, this work takes its place in the advancement of these techniques. The tone of this combination of scenes is orderly, causing the observer to take in the interactions between the individualized figures. In this way, it is intellectual and allegorical. 
A tetradic color scheme based on value adjustments seems to be used, with warm reds and cool greens forming one leg and neutral oranges and blues forming the other. Well-developed perspective is clearly present. The most impressive component to this depth-defining technique is how well the artist rendered the volume within the webbings consistent with the overall use of linear perspective. The shapes are decorative in tone, and this is contradicted by the near-interpenetration of planes and moments of foreshortening. 

Lines and edges are relied on to create interior volumes and a sense of receding depth to remarkable effectiveness. When this is compared to the figures and gestures of the subjects, a sort of mechanical balance is struck. There seems to be a mathematically-calculated tone in the architecture, motifs and patterns. Greens, reds and geometric shapes are diffused effectively and, when combined with the rich pattern of values, create a unified canvas. 
All subjects are somewhat decorative, but they are value-developed to similar degrees, a source of mild tension. The importance of the virgin is emphasized through subtlety, the most desired variety. She is placed dead-center of the canvas (not so subtle), her dense form is highlighted by her surroundings, perspective lines converge to the center of her mass, and she is dressed in the manner of Byzantine royalty. 
Gothic architectural elements define the canvas. The result is an unexpected strengthening of the illusion (trompe le’oil) that the observer is viewing the scene from outside and slightly to the right, looking through windows. The perspective is not physically possible, but the artist combines design and formatting so well that the illusion is achieved. 
This work displays the unification characteristic of gothic art through perspective, its placement of the observer relative to the scene, biblical thematic imagery and attention-grabbing use of color and value arrangement. It shares qualities with mature classic Greek art in how its pictorial contradictions are visually accepted without distraction. 

Artist known as Guda the Nun (e.12th). Book of Homilies page with Self-Portrait of the Guda the Nun [ink on parchment]. Stadt-und Universitäts-Bibliothek, Frankfurt, Germany.

I honestly cannot tell if this is an overly-ornate drop cap or simply an illustration. The language seems to be Germanic, not Latin, and of course I cannot understand it. The graphic itself is expert in it’s rendering: full variation of values, a simple complementary color scheme and a nearly exclusive reliance on patterned, curved edges and forms. The title individual’s gesture is one of calm humility. The text is set on the page masterfully, and I simply cannot imagine how the calligrapher accomplished this by hand. Each word is effectively a ligature. Leading is consistent but with natural variation. The character of these two traits alone still carry an organic feel, even though they are nearly mechanically applied. |

The design of the entire page is influenced more by the illuminary arts of the time than the communicative purpose of the text. Doubtless this entire text staked its ground in that very development more than being a result of it. With the narrow ragged-right column (cropped in the image), centrally-embedded pictorial graphic and large block of basic blackletter copy with a single line breaking the hierarchy, it displays an excellent alternative typographic layout. The designs of the graphic itself reflect the attributes of the body copy, while the strokes that define the portrait contrast in measure in their lengthy narrowness. 
Lines and shapes define the graphic in both color and value. It is essentially flat with a hint of spiraling depth. The most developed depth comes through the extreme contrast of the negative space-defined self portrait and the dense field behind her. The circular nature of the graphic contrasts well against the upright density of the letterforms and the vertical block of text they create. Both figure and text carry a natural, organic tone. “Reverse-highlighting”, formatting the figure in white and setting it against a dense field, sets the self-portrait apart from the remainder of the page.
The self-portrait is, in fact, framed by the edges of a versal character “D”. It is one of the first examples of a visual work of art signed by a woman creator, and in this case references the importance female technicians had in the labors of Germanic scriptoria. It is a pedestrian page of a voluminous text, yet displays deliberate and graceful design, contrasts in geometry, and typographic hierarchy. 

(artist(s) unknown, located at Abbey Church of Saint Michael, Hildesheim, Germany) (1015). Doors of Bishop Bernward [bronze]. Abbey Church of Saint Michael, Hildsheim, Germany.

I admit with some shame that the subject matter of the scenes is much beyond my knowledge and clearly an advanced understanding of the Bible and the Gospels is required to fully appreciate this work’s content. Comparisons to the work of Andrea Pisano are obvious, with this work showing a less deliberate and more expressive character in the energy and formal treatment of the individual cells. This is truly a work I will have to study for years as my understanding of the Bible develops. | 
Age visually influences all works to a degree, but this one is on a par with The Investiture of Zimrilim. Human forms carry the same almost whispy, slightly bent gestures of two-dimensional works from the medieval period. Realism applies with less textural and spatial manipulation than that found in The Life of John the Baptist. Expressing the emotional states and interactions of active figures on passive is prioritized, charging the individual scenes with some energy to the sensitive observer. 
The relatively high-relief, regularly-paced figurative shapes create a sense of pattern and timing that cause me to read it panel-by-panel from left-to-right, top-to-bottom. Actually, it is read from top-down along the first column, then bottom-up along the second column. Rather than promote the even-paced sense of time typical of patterned work, this is a collection of moments read scene-to-scene.

Depth is organized into two distinct planes. The foreground contains all figures and takes advantage of nearly all extant relief work. The background contains scenery and buildings and medium development is flattened to near-etchings on the pictorial surface. Repeated figurative shapes, related by size and texturing, evenly populate and set the pace for the global surface. Strong organization are balance are present. 
On a cell-to-cell basis, relative elemental embellishment guides the eye to where the focus should be. Specifically, this means the high-relief interactions of the figures, with the assumption that the observer would have a strong understanding of the Old and New Testaments. One of the qualities of this work I personally appreciate is how each of the sixteen scenes position the narratives from the same perspective in a strongly consistent proportional framework. 
This is a master work of form and content that heralds the sumptuous exterior developments that would characterize architectural decoration in the coming centuries. The designer, or team of designers, constructed a series of compositions gracefully organized by allegorical time, content source and formal design. The vertical halves depict themes found in the Bible (left) and those found in the Gospels (right), while the horizontal divisions are thematic comparisons made between the two sources expertly arranged by the traditional time of their occurrence. Taken on a pair-by-pair basis, an analysis of the similarities and differences of and between the events and figures is a complicated, intellectual and uniquely personal experience. What this combination of master works states to me is that, as someone who is about to enter the space of the patron bishop, I must prepare myself for someone who has an intimate knowledge of the Christian texts and a deep understanding of the human condition. 

(artist unknown, located at Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) (781 to 783). Godescalc Evangelistary Book of Mark page with Mark the Evangelist [ink on vellum]. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

I see a series of beautifully textured planes brought together to form a decorative work created simply for beauties’ sake. The title character exchanges a placid glance with the highly stylized lion-figure that represents himself. Frame and scene are tied together in a manner rarely seen in creations of any time period, alternating between pattern and texture, lending uniqueness to each plane. Where forms are not flattened, they tend to be foreshortened. Formal choices in color and value generate interest and contrast while seamlessly blending into the character of the textures. |

Striking the exact half-way point of the abstraction scale is at the least a great challenge. This illustration comes close. The objects and shapes that create the figures are nearly discrete forms on their own, but in the end they merge together just enough to tip the scale in favor of realism. Like the Woman and Maid lekythos, this is a work of pictorial beauty, in this case sharing the warm exchange between apostle and his symbol-figure. I would consider this an instinctual, thematic work of design.

Line-defined shapes, a pictorially-balanced complementary color scheme and beautifully intuitive texture bring this work together. An uncommon union of framework and scene is created with motifs growing into the background and repeating themselves in furniture decorations. The decorative sense of depth is created through texture-blended, overlapping forms.

The figure of Mark is value-developed to a degree not common to the early medieval time-period, which lends him heightened character and definition. Lines define his form and furniture, and their calligraphic nature are consistent with the framing motifs and this work’s global development. The artist has successfully sought unified balances through color warmth, an evenly-applied complementary color scheme, value range and a texture/decoration combination that takes advantage of the qualities of the page. The arrangement of forms and motion unbalance this work slightly to the left.

This work, as an example of the entire manuscript, takes its place the development of western two-dimensional achievement for two reasons. First, the Godescalc Evangelistary Book of Mark is credited with being one of the first works to initiate the age of western European illuminary expression that would develop for centuries. Second, evidence of naturalism and development of pictorial depth are clear. This is contradicted by stylistic traditions of the time, for example lingering fractional representation and heavy reliance on decoration, resulting in a work that is undeniably well-designed by in conflict with itself in more subtle ways.

Emeterius and Senior (c.July, 970). Colophon page, Commentaries on Apocalypse and Daniel by Beatus and Jerome [tempera on parchment]. Archivo Histόrico Nacional, Madrid.

A sensitivity to color and value pattern is shown from room-to-room, storie-to-storie. The façade of the building is cut away at a right angle to reveal the activity in the interior spaces. A watch tower with working spaces is the structure’s purpose. Clearly, describing the routine of the inhabitants was of greater importance than developing a sense of space. |

Like many works of the middle ages, this one finds itself nearly splitting the difference between optical reality and abstraction. In my opinion, while traces of realism are present in the depiction of the people, the cut-away nature of this work in combination with its reliance on patterns and nearly geometric shapes favor abstraction. In fact, some of the figures effectively melt into the background designs. A primary purpose of this illustration is to visually document Emeterius’ effort in the labor of book crafting.

Local value/shape patterns combine to create the larger, single pattern/shape of the building that defines this work. Combined with the cloth-like texture of the medium, it is affected with a warm, almost quilt-like quality. Midtoned orangish-reds are set up in opposition to dense blues, perhaps a result of the age of this work damaging a more deliberate color strategy. The arrangement of forms is highly decorative; both figurative and architectural elements conform to the page surface.

This work is asymmetric, but strictly resulting from formal arrangements and not due to unbalanced movement or energy. Movement is generally at perpendicular angles across the page, causing the handful of oblique angles to be more noticeable. An overall use of patterned small blocks is contrasted well against vertical and predictably-paced larger forms, though those shapes differ greatly in value.

Contrasts in positive and negative space create a top-down movement of the eye along the patterned tower. This overpowers the recognizability of the two figures in an adjoining room because of its diluted values. In it’s time, surely the cell containing this book’s crafters would have been the center of focus, in part because the descriptive text above their heads would have been more noticeable. The building itself has the nearest façade removed to provide the most information about its daily activities possible.

A colophon is the final page of a manuscript illuminary crafters use to identify themselves. In this example, the structure is the Tábara monastery of León, Spain and the two authors are the figures to the right of the bell tower. A sensitivity to providing detail that would not be possible if literal reality were the goal is present, generating the need for this work’s abstract nature. While some choices in composition are awkward to modern tastes, in some ways this work is centuries ahead of its time: A form of what would become the modern  grid system is present in how the patterns and are organized aligned.

(artist(s) unknown, Church of the Monastery of Christ in Chora funerary chapel asp, Constantinople) (c.1310 to 1320). Anastasis [painting]. Getty Research Library, Los Angeles, Wim Swaan Photograph Collection.

The artist is layering three separate realms on a single surface. The warm, bright doorway to heaven is protected by Christ, who is actively stealing two figures from death to return with him. They are positioned in tombs, also depicted as gateways, in this case between Earth and hell. The void of the underworld is visually described as eternally dark, with masses floating in a void with no solid grounding, just churning chaos. Severely abstracted shapes resembling fleshless bones populate this miasma. As Christ recovers his officials from the dead, Earth-bound figures witness the event. This intermediary plane is rendered as stark, lifeless and rocky. |

It is not difficult to see this work’s reliance on shapes merging to create figures and subjects, but while their treatment is somewhat flattened, there is enough value development and edge blending to create a stylized work of realism. The location of this painting, its unexpected “canvas” shape and the heroic, warrior-like action of Christ charge the picture plane with context and movement. The arrangement and disposition of the spectating figures counter-balances this.

A roughly equivalent blend of shape definition through line and contrasts in color and/or value is present. The artist(s) have taken advantage of the natural texturing the medium offers, combining it with active texturing in the the work’s development. Rather than applying a specific color strategy, I believe reliance on the objective color and formatting subjects with mildly-modeled shadow/highlight development was the plan of this work’s creator(s). This modelling supports rather than establishes the overlapping and reasonably developed spatial order. Evidence of foreshortening and fractional representation are present, but overall the sense of depth is not confused. The more dramatic differences in tone through the vertical center of the scene create a stronger sense of movement and depth in that area, whereas the the peripheries are developed with midtones.

Figurative gestures provide movement and focus more than any other measure, both in their actual and implied directions. For reasons I cannot guess the forms on the right-third are better-defined than the left-third, and on the left the background is built in a higher key. Pale blues, dense oranges, repeated shapes and actual and implied lines flowing in a circular motion are effective at tying the separate areas of the canvas together. The use of diluted colors help to place more focus on the Savior-figure through his contrasting high-key development.

One of the remarkable traits about this painting is the layering of strategies used to direct attention, both obvious and subtle. Pictorial placement (dead-center), activity (versus passivity), formatting contrasts (especially value), slight figurative enlargement and both implied and actual lines of movement all place focus on the figure of the Savior. A graceful closed-composition is crafted, and where those forces of direction focus, the purposeful, direct gaze of the Savior-figure is aimed at the observer, stating, not asking, in a wordless glance that he is the way to the field of paradise.

(attributed to Hirschfield Workshop) (c.750 to 700 bc). Dipylon Funerary Krater [terra-cotta]. The metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

This vase is an excellent example of geometric-era Greek craft. Human, animal and artificial forms are abstracted nearly beyond shape, many to simple lines. All are adjusted to planar depth with even spatial arrangement. Generally, there is a horizontal flow with perpendicular angles and a top-down register organization. Motifs imply wilderness, mountains and night sky. The lower register shows a military procession with shield-bearing soldiers and horse-drawn chariots. All registers have a design-first “mentality”, bringing attention to the form of the vase while individual forms work with its vertical orientation. |
While the individual elements can be identified as soldier, animal, chariot, etc, this is a work of design. There effectively is no background, and where there is it is separated from other elements to be placed in its own design area. The patterning mimics the horizontal direction of the registers and conforms to the shape of the vase. 
Line is primary, and they build shapes and patterns. Texturing is also present in some of the wider forms. Off-black slip is offset against the beige background, effectively creating an achromatic work. There is no attempt to create an illusion of depth on this piece, a defining characteristic of the time period. Rather, an implication of recession in space is created by placing a background pattern or texture above (read “behind”) the scene it belongs to, or to merge shapes into a single form, suggesting overlapping forms without separating them (eg, the row of horses in the lower register). 
Pictorially, a great deal of balance is to be found. Positive against negative space and stability against movement are all brought into roughly equivalent ratios. There is a heavy reliance on long, hair-like lines and values on the opposite ends of the spectrum. All figures are either in profile or straight-on view. The elongated formatting of the figures works at cross-angles to the overall lateral organization of this work. All registers format the surface they’re on with a pleasant textural pattern. Of course, the two with the figurative processions contain the most lateral movement, and the framing registers support this movement well. Areas of focus are general and not specific.

I mistook the subject of this work. It depicts the cremation and burial of an important person. Figures in mourning have upraised gestures of desperate loss, while the lower register is the funerary procession. The stark achromatic color scheme and simplification of human body parts reflect the harshness and inflexibility of the theme of this piece, death. When the well-crafted conceptual layer is peeled away, clearly the formal design of this work can still be appreciated today for it’s spatial sensitivity, movement and organic merging of scene and medium. 

Luis Borrassá (c.1399). Virgin and Saint George [tempera on wood panel]. Church of San Francisco, Villafranca del Panadés, Barcelona.

The framework organizing the scenes is church architecture in the gothic style. The subjects are described in individual cells, a technique common to the artistic era. A minor break from the general use of this style is the use of solid areas of space, meaning not all possible space is soaked in decoration or designs. Subjects and forms are diffuse with exception of the enlarged figures of the lower register and the center cell. This diffusion is supported by a masterful global color and tone pattern. The content of the scenes varies widely in mood. Subjects include the Crucifixion, torture, murder and more peaceful events blessed by angels (eg, upper-left-most panel). The overall effect of this work, beyond story telling, is portraiture. |

This work verges on realism but must be considered semi-abstract because form flattening in favor of mood and eye movement control is present. Design applies, but not rigidly to. Forms are naturally arranged in pictorial space with light modeling. This work is a masterful interlocking arrangement of divergent, discrete values (primarily) in combination with an ordered complementary color scheme (secondarily). A handful of patterns reveal themselves and melt back into the canvas. Generally, the colors are not applied on purity scales but on specific swatches.

Perpendicular angles and motion characterize the sense of pictorial balance, but it leans towards a vertical flow because the canvas dimensions favor that direction. There is a sense of spatial volume, or a certain airiness, in the scenes but because of the massive architectural elements and figurative value pattern, this work has a certain weight to it.

Interest is not built mainly through formal differences. Borrassá has used his skills of expression to tie together what would normally be isolated narratives vertically and horizontally. They are formally characterized by dominance of specific values (terminals and a single midtone), glowing warmth and decoration. There is subordinated contrast between elongated, figurative, gestural and airy architectural shapes and spaces. Repeated forms are found throughout, lacing the work with both perpendicular and curved patterns.

Because of the distribution of motion, energy and masses are diffuse in nature, hieratic scale tends to organize areas of focus. This occurs in the central panel, with the over-enlarged figure prepared for combat, and the figures in the lower register which include the trininty. Secondarily, gestures and lines of sight create a series of closed compositions, including a single vast one.

Both the position of the observer and treatment of the picture frame have to be considered on a cell-to-cell basis. Basically, for most, the observer is on the other side of the space-spanning framing element, sort of eavesdropping on the narrative. The overall result is that the canvas is organized like a massive gothic cathedral, revealing its story from clerestory to arcade.

Borassa’s mastery in this work is shown in how he has bound the entire canvas together using repeated dense and midtoned-red figurative forms layered on top of light, illusionistically-deep and high value architectural shapes. His formal choices generate movement and interest and only support the narrative, which is primary to this work, not overpowering it. Virgin and Saint George is a strong example of capturing interest consistent with an instinctual sense of order within the observer, one of the greatest challenges of any artistic practice.
 

Andrea Pisano (1330 to 1336). Life of John the Baptist [gilded bronze panels]. Baptistry of San Giovanni, Florence, south doors.

I have a “soft spot” for quatrefoils. These ones are simply beautiful: Pefect circular and diamond forms fused together in a balanced design, used to frame the individual scenes of these door panels. These framing devices, in their strict geometry, contrast perfectly with the figurative, textured narratives within. The textured motif framing both doors adds delicacy and life to the entire composition; while the general forms are repeated, the details across each length are original. The individual cells are rendered in idealistic realism, favoring spatial design for clarity, and beautifully textured, from backgrounds, to clothing, to architecture. This isn’t just a master work; it is a handful of master works beautifully arranged in an organic, graceful manner, providing general ambiance, specific story-telling and utility. |

The individual scenes are basically realistic verging on naturalism. On the one hand, specifics are rendered with textural quality, on the other the nature of the medium and the idealistic formatting of forms injects abstraction to the cells. 
This is a master work of pictorial, architectural and relief expression. When narrowing the focus down to the scenes of the individual quatrefoils, shape predominates. This is supported by a painstakingly-considered combination of positive and negative space, texture, chronological unfolding of events (time) and the global pattern the panels create. 
The relief-nature of the medium greatly aids the impression of depth in the panels because there is actual depth. Its relative development implies space the same way the Ara Pacis does. There is a basic bright/dull treatment of subject, which favors energy control more than spatial organization. Minor adjustments in pictorial detail support this work’s sense of depth, as well. 
Using pictorial balance in favor of the clearest possible representation of the individual narratives is a formal choice made globally and in the individual scenes. The idealistic realism that formats the cells shows the continued progression of western art from flat abstraction in favor of optical reality. One of the results of this trend in this work is the subtle texture each cell gains from it. All elemental choices, including formal arrangement the application of negative space, are made to create visually pleasing, balanced scenes. 
Each cell carries equal development, weight and energy, similar to a series of capital letters, which of course is appropriate to tell a visual story. Framing motifs and textures serve their space-defining and supportive roles well. 
This work reveals, or is an example of, a trend common of Gothic era art in it’s organized, clear communication of a story. It sets the definition for forging visual beauty and utility into a single unit. The architectural elements effectively melt into the framing devices and pictorial cells. Pisano has crafted a master work based on the harmonious balancing of contrasts: realism and abstraction, pace built on positive and negative space and energy and movement with a static sense of substantiality.

(artists unknown, believed to be created in Iona, Scotland) (l.8th to e.9th). Book of Kells Book of Matthew Chi Rho Iota page [ink on vellum]. The Board of Trinity College, Dublin.

I am slowly learning that Romanesque art is not for me. This page is undeniably beautiful, but for my tastes the phrase “over the top” still isn’t in the ballpark. I do appreciate the level of detail; this far into my education I can’t think of a single work that is more intricate. Unfortunately, there is way too much going on to be able to take it all in properly. The combination of complementary color and dense outline does “raise” letterforms from their surroundings. The repeated use of rolling, circular components withing circular forms, combined with the overly-generous use of gold, causes the page to seem to roil and glow. |
I’m going out on a limb and stating that this is one of the single-greatest works of objective abstraction created in western culture. Figurative, realistic forms can be found, but they are subtly blended into the complicated design. The letter forms, defined by black-outer and red-inner calligraphic strokes, separate themselves from the ocean of swirling gold that is the background, and become the subject. The design is so intricate that there is conflict between the peaceful intention of the page and the churning energy the design creates. My guess is the work was planned on an area-to-area basis. 
Glowing, warm color doesn’t completely carry this work, but comes close. It is patterned, textured, and given breathing life by rounded, circular forms and an area-by-area sense of balance. The use of color (complementary red-green) is as controlled as the the use of gold is generous. To say the decorative embellishment of the Greek phonograms overpower their meaning is almost offensive. 
Forms affect each other with tension and in moments seem to push against each other, causing them to rotate. All intuitively seem to be viewed from a perpendicular top-down perspective. The result is a shallow composition that implies depth more than expected when each compositional choice is considered individually. 
This work seems “top-heavy”. That is, the distribution of circular forms, and the lopsided character intrinsic to the Greek letter Rho, places most pictorial “weight” in the upper half of the picture plane. A radial pattern of pictorial movement, starting in the counter of the dominant character, conflicts with the vertical orientation of the page and letterforms. This is not a distraction, but an interest-generating strength. 
The combination of the perpendicularly-angled iota and the colossal and curvaceous Rho letterforms is the greatest compositional strength of this page. Another is in how the circular motifs are constructed. They are solid, yet organic in tone, more delicate and sensitive to their surroundings than rigid and harsh. They seem to number beyond count, and while each one is very specific to itself, the manner in which they blend together to create a flowing, ocean-like background is standard-setting. 
A handful of unending calligraphics lines are relied on to create compositional fusion and contrasts with such grace that their importance is blended. They create the rounded and curved forms that dominate the picture plane, as does global harmony. The unbridled dominance of mid/light value is a weakness of this work. Negative space does not exist. Both can be tiring to the eyes. 
Clearly the exhaustive effort required to build this work is to be respected, which can be said of most visual expression, but the formal design and embellishment here established has rightfully taken it's place in the timeline of western art. The masterful, complicated level of detail, of motifs-within-shapes-within-designs, is arguably standard setting even with the advantages of technology and workflow we have today.