(artist unknown, discovered in modern Austria). (c.22,000 to 21,000 bc). Woman from Willendorf [limestone]. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.

I’ve studied this work throughout my education; my understanding of it is based on what I’ve been taught about it, meaning I will not bring anything new to the table. Clearly this work emphasizes the importance of fertility in a time when the survival of the group was not nearly as sure as it is today. I believe this work shows decent design with the repeated curved forms, balance of shapes and sense of mass it has. | 

This is a conceptual work of objective abstraction. Formal choices are made with a single intention, which is to create a tactile fertility symbol. To put it another way, of course this is a statuette of a woman, but the reproductive power within the symbol is placed in the “spotlight” more than the idea of womanhood, if that makes sense. 

Shape and texture comprise this work. Patterning thought to imitate hair textures the head of the figure. When viewed head-on, which is likely the original intention, the figure reflects horizontally. Rounded and curved forms dominate from head to toe. Such shapes are repeated in the textured imitation of head hair. The work emphasizes health by enlarging certain features over others. 

The most detail of this work is centered on the figure’s genitals and the texture of the head-form. Limbs are severely reduced, but overall forms and medium are substantial, giving the statuette a feeling of permanence. 

(artist unknown, original located in ancient Babylon). (c.575 bc). Ishtar gate [glazed brick mural]. Facsimile located at Vorderasiatisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz.

Overall this is a work of rigidly-balanced design. Common animals (ie, non-fantastical or hybrid) are shown in “perfect” profile and in mid-motion. They all carry the same formatting, but are individually different in the details of their rendering. They and the highly-abstracted framing devices are arranged to a simple and consistent pattern system. | 
Figures and plant-forms are simplified to such a severe degree that the entire mural approaches 20^th century levels of objective abstraction. Providing a simple and pleasing decoration for large areas of flat space is the purpose behind this work, and it is quite successful at this. 

While subjects are recognizable, the overall pattern is more important. It is built on three inseparable and beautifully blended elements: Shape, color and value. Colors contrast, and a basic split-complement swatch strategy is used with light gold-oranges against dense blues and midtoned greens. The interlocking values clarify the pattern more than anything else. The blocky rendering of the pattern repeats the medium that it is created on.

Pictorially, this work has strictly planar depth. The only hint at three-dimensionality is in how the figures are created in shallow relief against the flat background. A fore- and background relationship is maintained by using higher key values for the figures and plant forms. While low-key blues create clearly incised shapes, it is very clear that these are the backdrop. Pictorial weight is as orderly as its elemental formatting and sense of depth. Figure orientations create closed compositions, and depending on what specific surface the observer is viewing, symmetry ranges from static to approximate. 

Figure orientation, size, an emphasis on natural forms and a severely limited, chromatic color palette bind this work together. Disharmony is nearly extinguished. Well-placed contrasting elements compromise areas of static background, and rounded forms clash against the perpendicular nature of the overall composition. A split-complement color scheme and juxtaposition of dense and light values are also strong methods of generating interest. 

This work is diffuse in elemental and energy distribution. Because it is meant to provide pleasant visuals for an otherwise solid mass of “dead” space, no more than a passing interest is the intention. Forms and observer are meant to adjust to the picture plane; all design choices are made within the limitations of the “canvas”. 

If the facsimile is to be taken at face value, it seems the Babylonians developed the barrel vault on par with the culture that is credited with its widespread use, the Romans. In addition, it is clear that this defensive work of architecture was meant to inspire awe by diminishing the size of foreign visitors. It serves all of the purposes of strong design: pleasant, predictable arrangement, sensitivity to space and effective distribution of color and value which create a strong, unified compositional whole. 

(artist unknown, original located at Kawa, Nubia). (c.690 to 664 bc). Taharqo Sphinx [stone]. The British Museum, London.

In Egyptian sculpture, this work is the “counter” to the bust of Senusret III because it is less specific and more typical of that culture’s style: Forms reduced to their geometric essences and arranged to maintain an austere resemblance of what they’re depicting. The individual Pharaoh, Taharqo, is recognizable, rendered as a hybrid creature (lion-man, or sphinx). The original was located at the Temple of Kawa, where this vision of him stood guard. | 

Merging the man with a lion illustrates his character: brave, loyal, strong, in control, many of the traits the ancients tended to associate with the lion. His over-enlarged eyes’ focii do not converge, and instead run parallel into the distance, which, as a man in charge, suggests something about his state of mind: His eternal vision is surveying all that he owns and is responsible for. His facial features are specific to the individual man, because the individual forms are not reduced to the same sort of geometry as the facial features of an Easter Island statue, or the Statue of Liberty, as examples. 

As with all works of sculpture, mass and volume are primary. In this case, shape and space support. Forms and the figure’s expression are reduced to a very general level; providing an idealized, placid portrait of the individual, and expressing the idea of vigilance, are communicated. A vague reference to timeless is made, and not much else. In keeping with the impression of order this work creates, horizontal symmetric balance applies when viewed from the most intended angle, which is head-on. 

This might be a characteristic of the medium, but edges seem to be softened somewhat with a slightly rounded treatment. Though a living hybrid creature is the subject, many of its surfaces are flattened. Human and animal features do not contrast but blend; this is not characteristic of, for example, Greek works that emphasize this difference. 
The idealistic rendering of the face and the inaccessible mood it communicates draw the most effort from the observer. This in-the-round work is developed in an austere style from all angles more so than many of ancient times, which usually were meant to be viewed from one or two perspectives. 

In practice, this work was created in the context of foreign invasion. The conquering ruler was rendered in works such as this one to maintain peace by keeping with Egyptian customs. In this case, the conquering ruler’s portrait was installed in a combination of formal sculptural elements traditional to ancient Egypt. Overall this work is meant to place formal order ahead of interest, possibly to the point of causing boredom, but I believe to criticize this piece for that reason is to miss the creator’s intention. 

Artist thought to be Philoxenos of Eretria or Helen of Egypt (c.310 bc). Alexander the Great Confronts Darius III at the Battle of Issos [mosaic cell located in Pompeii]. Museo Archeològico Nazionale, Naples.

The individual features of both generals are present; the framing motif’s pace is repeated by the spears the hero charges into; canvas is nearly equivalent in positive/negative space and value organization with the upper horizontal block against the lower. There isn’t a value pattern so much as a roughly balanced distribution of the value range in the lower block. A strong design choice is the contrast of curved versus straight shapes and edges. | 
Alexander the Great shown as heroic, a man of action, who leads from the front is the primary purpose behind this mosaic. His figure contrasts against his opponent, who protects himself by surrounding himself by those he commands, letting them fight his battles for him. I believe the panicked poses of the three horses that surround him suggest the fear Xerxes III has in his mind. The canvas is charged with the energy of the moment before two massive forces are about to collide and brutally destroy each other. 

Shapes defined through value adjustments build this work. The texturing native to mosaic as a medium supports this work’s unique character. It is nearly without color, but seems to me that a monochromatic color scheme based on warm red is used. Patterning is present with repeating figurative, round (heads, torsos) and straight-edged (spears) elements. 

A reasonable attempt at plastic depth is made, in opposition to the flat nature of shapes, mainly through overlap and a sort of proto-atmospheric perspective. Details are developed in a manner consistent with ancient artwork. That is, they are consistently defined throughout, and not a crutch used to create depth. 

At first glance, visual elements, and therefore weight, are distributed evenly in the block that contains them. Because the composition is disproportionately horizontal, the potentially destabilizing energy of the action is diluted. The artist has created remarkable organic conflict between the “heroic” left side, which takes up less space but carries the undeniable force of righteousness, and the “villainous” right side, which inverts those two scales (quality of character and pictorial size). Static asymmetry applies. 

Colors are overwhelmingly muddied to the point of near-neutrality. There are also basic neutrals present, resulting in the implication of color differences through value. Figure definition is not organized in nearly the same manner as works typical of the era. This is a strength, because it imitates the chaos of hand-to-hand battle, and infuses the work with a sense of energy that wouldn’t be possible if strict design and specific communication were emphasized more. 

I believe two measures define the primary areas of attention, which are the faces of the conflicting generals. First, their faces are really the only two that are developed to the point where the individual can be identified. Second, in the case of Xerxes, the large, defensive circular element standing out from the field it’s woven into because of the near-white trimming that is used to define it. This further emphasizes the contrasting characters of the two primary subjects. 

In fact, shapes are not decorative but developed in space through modeling. Equally as important, this scene depicts Xerxes III fleeing in defeat. His gesture is one of pleading acceptance, almost begging for mercy. Works such as this one were popular with Roman patrons because it confirms their faith in the moral righteousness of cultures centered on representative government over autocracy. Formally, it masterfully expresses a dramatic, violent event through a seamlessly blended combination of modeling, form arrangement and energy. 

(artist unknown, located in Dura-Europos, Syria). (244 to 45). The Finding of the Baby Moses [wall painting]. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut.

There is stark use of values; they seem to be based on pure black spatially arranged to offer graduations rather than specific “stops” of gray. Horizontal orientation is supported by the repeating feminine forms and the motif embedded in the framing design. My guess is the image is meant to take its place in a visual narrative, and that this orientation, flow and the rightward gestures of the figures to the edge are meant to direct the observer to the next arrangement of information. | 
This work appears to have been created for and by private citizens and not necessarily for more official patrons. It is similar in purpose to the earliest discovered renderings of mankind, which were foremost believed to be used to spread information. In this case, it aids the telling of the title story, and pictures important individuals in that story. 

Clearly value defines this entire work. The white positive and dense negative area pattern and “canvas” orientation, in combination, are certainly strengths. Texture takes on the effortless character of the entire composition, binding the work together. 

A distinct decorative manner characterizes this work’s pictorial depth. While figures are quite recognizable, close inspection of the shapes that create them reveal them to be almost planar. Because of how this work defines open space and the water of the pool (corrected to be the Nile), more volume is successfully implied. This work relies on gestalt principles for its unity as well. Global treatment of details and textures support the flattened pictorial nature. Static asymmetry with mild horizontal movement applies. 

A sharp division in value defines this work, more than any other measure, by a wide margin. Midtones are effectively eliminated. Active shapes are figurative; supportive are geometric. They are harmonized by orientation and formatting (planar, size, feminine). The roughly balanced ratio of positive and negative space binds more than conflicts. 

The horizontal “flow” of this painting is created by the frame design, canvas orientation and especially the pattern created by the figures. The figure with the baby is overwhelmed by the nearly-pure white highlight of the water. It’s possible the “second” baby held by the two women to the left of the canvas are holding the same baby, implying the passage of time. I would argue this region of the painting creates its first specific area of interest. 

One of the defining characteristics of this work is how the figures engage with the viewer in an air and mood of celebration and joy. All face the observer, some with arms open, and others politely guiding through gestures. 

This work documents the narrative of Exodus 1:8 to 2:10 and shows clear connections with works of the ancient Near East and Egypt. It is thought that early Christian and Hebrew works such as this one, created in the context of Imperial Rome, influenced the styles of Byzantine art. This can be seen in the gradual shift in abstraction from idealistic realism to simplification during the fourth and fifth centuries, the period which saw the Western Empire crumble. 

(artist unknown, original located in Nizami, Herat, Afghanistan). (c.1426). Bahrum Gur and the Indian Princess in her Black Pavilion [The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Pattern and ambiguity predominate. There are multiple perspectives; the dome and stars are presented as being viewed from outside but the roof and the walls supporting it switch between convergent perspective (inside the building) and maintaining the outside view. An ornate pointed arch presents the events inside but the adherence to maintaining patterns causes the lower figures to either stand on solid ground or float in space. | 

I believe the intention of this painting is to offer the observer an insight into the subject’s domestic lifestyle, enjoying a typical evening at home. This becomes incidental to the development of motifs and patterns, which vary in overall development. Because this work favors textures and patterns over an optical reflection, I would consider this a work of realistic abstraction. An important detail of this work is, in the dome, evidenced of the tremendous influence of Byzantine architecture, specifically the Hagia Sofia, had on Muslim cultural development, the Ottoman Turks more specifically.
Line is relied on to define shapes. Patterns sensitive to their internal spatial layout overpower the shapes that create them. There does not seem to be a specific color scheme to organize the somewhat subjective colors used, but their arrangement, and that of this work’s values, shows planning. 

Depth is quite tricky in this painting. A form of perspective that switches between non-convergent and divergent is built on the outer edges of the building and in the confusion those edges generate with their contact with the frame. Simultaneously, architectural forms are forced into a flattened shape, and others allow access inside the building. That access, based on an ornate pointed arch, reveals more ambiguity based on the conflict between choices that lend themselves towards spatial depth and those that flatten it. Convergence is present, however forms are forced onto the medium surface. Patterns and textures do not take the form of the objects they are applied to, yet their relative embellishment causes some of the more ornate patterns to seem to float in front of the observer. This creates a depth-to-shallow-to-depth sequence, with the cycle possibly repeating again. 

The picture plane is nearly reflected along a vertical axis line that divides it in equal horizontal halves. Details change, but the sums of their weights, their formatting and their spatial arrangements are effectively equivalent.

Lines lock values and colors within their areas, underscoring the overwhelmingly decorative and ordered feel of this painting. All forms have some mechanical feel to them, ranging to purely geometric. While straight and curved edges play off each other from top-to-bottom, curved tend to have a rounded development. Straight edges are formatted at predictable 45-degree angles. The full range of values is used, but dark tones are more numerous, which is consistent with the late evening tone of the work. 

I believe the intended center of interest is the interaction between the central figures. Besides the gestural recognizability, the sharpest contrasts in tone are found between the faces and the patterned background created by the enormous pillow behind them. Multiple perspectives are present. This causes undeniable conflict between any one area attracting attention against the viewer’s eyes constantly scanning the entire picture plane. In addition, forms are simple, for the most part, however the colorful patterning found within the spacious, cut-away chamber are quite ornate.

This work’s experimentation with pictorial depth is clearly its defining characteristic. Personally, I believe the formal choices that create this painting’s unique spatial ambiguity were deliberate. The reason why is because the mood of the scene is serene, but because the artist created areas that switch between being grounded and requiring grounding, unmistakable energy, and therefore interest, are generated. The mood of the work is relaxing, but the elemental confusion causes tension between harmony and interest in a way that is rare to find in fine art. 

(creators unknown, probably commissioned by William the Conqueror; created in either Cantebury, Kent or Beyaux, France). (c.1066 to 82). The Bayeux Tapestry [embroidery, 230' long]. Centre Guillaume le Conquérant, Bayeux, France.

To me, this work carries a lot of the same characteristics of ancient Egyptian art. Forms are abstracted in favor of the surface they’re placed on. A narrative is the foremost creative purpose and all formal choices serve it. Differences between the two styles include subjects that overlap, more enrichment of framing elements and much more variation in perspectives, which are not pictorially consistent. |

Clearly, documenting the Norman Invasion from the victors’ point of view was the purpose behind this work. The narrative must’ve been carefully planned and arranged, due to the extensive effort it took to create. However, figures, patterns and subjects have a certain energy to them which lend me to believe it was built within the “momentum of the workflow”, if you take my meaning. 

Line carries this work. Generally, with some variation, lines are the shapes and they define the framing motifs and letterforms. This work is not meant to “reach out” and grab the observer’s attention through sharp or offensive contrasts or radical formal choices. It is academic, interlacing visuals with text to maximize its communicative utility. The embellishments of monochromatic color and value are nearly muted. However, the seamless melding of pattern and timing is an undeniable strength of this work. 

The consideration of depth is abrupt, and nearly flat. Because shapes have almost no embellishment, I would argue they’re more planar than decorative. Again, the simplicity of this component clears more clutter away from the message. Pictorially, taking in the entire breadth of this work is not reasonable. Area-to-area, which equates to statement-to-statement, elements are distributed in an even, diffuse manner with a horizontal flow. 

Most formal choices relating to balance are meant to bind. Lines and shapes are treated in a similar manner, for example size, but some shapes are defined by line, and all are placed on a color gradient unique to this work: Orange to black, with purity “stops” (browns) in between, and one or two neutrals. The arrangement of the oranges and blacks creates a pleasant, compositionally-strengthening color and value pattern. All forms, including framing decorations and architectural elements, have a figurative feel to them, probably due to the medium. The entire work has a certain life to it, like it is slowly breathing. This is in part due to the slender treatment of all forms, heavy use of line, and generous negative space. 

Framing motifs in the narrow upper- and lower-registers direct the eye to the center register. Elongated figures, simplified forms and vertically-oriented lines mingling in the center register create an even left-to-right pace for the eye to follow and the mind to absorb. The perspective of the viewer is incidental; it bends and is repositioned depending on what the narrative of the individual open cell requires. 
If a single purpose had to be selected for this work, it would be to document and legitimize William the Conqueror’s claim to the English throne after the Norman invasion. The narrative is presented in an arguably ancient style, though with more life and less formal standardization. Illuminative practices of the English, according to the experts, had the most impact on the visual choices that were made. Even today this is a seminal work, not so much for its design, but its undeniable communicative achievement and the extensive effort it took to create. 

(artist unknown, currently in Paris). (1253 to 70). Psalter of Saint Louis page with Abraham, Sarah and the Three Angels/Strangers [ink, tempera and gold on vellum]. Pierpont Morgan

A page fully-devoted to a graphic image. Figures are gracefully arranged; mechanical shapes and framing devices are formatted with an even-toned complementary color scheme and a closed value pattern to maximize the use of each moment of page space. Compositionally decorative, orderly and dense, I believe the strongest binding features of this work are the placement of high-key values, curved strokes that predictably reverse direction and the central, clashing tree figure center-top. | 

Realistic semi-abstraction describes this work. One of the hallmarks of excellent design is creating a work that feels instinctually driven while it’s execution is deliberately measured. The framing decoration effectively separates the reader from the vision of the author, providing a crutch for her or his imagination. Behind it, intuitively-paced scenes sink into the background at a calm, consistent pace with just enough information provided for the observer to understand what is there. 

Two events are “read” from left-to-right; a story supporting the accompanying text is the subject. So the story goes that Abraham invited three traveling strangers to his home. His wife, Sarah, has prepared a meal for them with the best the couple have to offer, at which time the strangers reveal themselves to be God. 

I am arguing that value is the single element that does the most for this work. Its range adjustment defines planes of depth, separates figurative shapes, focuses attention (more than other elements) and binds the entire canvas together (including framework) through an odd-shaped tonal pattern. All other elements support value: line, shape, color, purity, pattern and texture. 

While undeniably intricate, this work is deceptive in its simplicity. The application of a single split-complement scale (warm red to neutral green and warm blue) is distributed to masterful effect. Midtones and muddied colors create the global rectangular shape of the entire page and provide the context for stark values and pure colors to stand out and tell the story. Generally, lines define shapes. Seamless, organic patterns are woven throughout the composition. 

The primary way depth is defined is in how high key values tend to separate forward from the picture plane while mid tones “hover” near it. While the whites are used more to control eye movement, the tree-figure clearly stands out from the scene, nearly equal with the framing device. There is also strong depth created through adjustment in color purity. Graceful overlapping of scenes, rather than shapes, is also used. Individual figures have some depth development through value. There seem to be hints of foreshortening, centuries ahead of its common use. 

Pictorial balance is intuitive and horizontally symmetrical in tone. Where this organizational division is struck a slight inversion of value patterns can be seen. Shapes are dominated by a decorative character, but there is a division between those that are figurative and in feel and those that are more artificial. This composition is appropriately dominated by muddied colors, providing the perfect backdrop for the striking influence-free hues, which in themselves cover the entire value range. 

The contrasting green of the tree-figure clearly pulls the most attention. “Slower-paced” movement courses through the frame, while more energy is present in the lower portion of the scene due to sight lines and sharp tonal contrasts. I find two things quite pleasing about the scene framing device: the interlaced pattern of values organized by a graceful stroke that reverses direction throughout. While embellished, the frame binds well with the formatting of the scene, and is not distracting. 

To me, the depicted is a visual example of social customs and interactions, particularly between household hosts and traveling strangers. The context is the time period described in the Old Testament, but the necessity of treating others with respect in general and the specific circumstance of welcoming them into one’s home, or being the one offered hospitality, is as relevant today. 
Clearly this work has many strengths that combine to create a calm, pleasing, fully unified composition. It puts the allegory front and center without distraction against a rich backdrop. I believe “master works” are clinically described in similar terms. 

(artist unknown, currently located in Paris). (e.12th). Cluny Lectionary Pentecost page [ink and tempera on vellum]. Bibliothéque Nationale.

As a designer I cannot help appreciating this page for its layout qualities. Pre-printing press, gray is laid out on a manuscript grid system to reasonable application. The letterforms that would impact the first type families in the coming centuries are clearly seen. Type hierarchy is as present as design hierarchy. Christ, suspended in heaven, brackets his trusted officials with the warmth of his hands and the rays of light radiating from him. | 
The work monasteries put into layout must be applauded. The page carries a field/ground arrangement, but clearly the graphic is a work of semi-abstract realism. Nothing about this page, or any like it, is to distract from the written message. Layout and graphics only support. Like technical organization, the type of work this is depends on global versus local areas. Overall, this work is conceptual. The graphic is perceptual. Clearly carrying the word of God is the purpose, but for me the design and the era in which it was made are more important. 

Considering the graphic image, shape and value are supportive to the complementary color scheme. The heavy framework alternates between light and dark, which is repeated throughout the composition. The entire graphic is based on repeating angled, rounded and figurative shapes, arranged quite well. Considering the remainder of the page, letterforms are humanist in their mild stroke contrast, organic feel and calligraphic tone. 

What amounts to a series of portraits are arranged in overlapping manner to create depth that is very orderly in the graphic. Contrasts in value provide further depth. For example, the robes of Christ, the lower central figure (Peter) and figure far-right rise on the picture plane because of contrasts in value and hue. Slight shape development is present by shading.

Symmetrical organization and the development of the figures hints at the statue-like treatment of pictorial subjects in the coming centuries. The graphic is a calm, weight-bearing addition to this page. Binding measures include the decorative formatting of shapes, consistent application of a color strategy, and an overall placid texture consistent with the medium. Interest is created by a strong use of subtle and contrasting values, rigid and figurative shapes and a blended use of color purity.

Hieratic scale, the direction of the dense values of the frame, direction of the light beam elements and sharp value contrasts of the cell that contains Christ demand the most attention. Of course, the lower-central figure, the only one whose form can be fully viewed, is secondary. Like many professionally developed image framing devices, this one presents the most basic elements that the scene it supports will contain: The gold of haloes, red of the background and dense off-black of figurative strokes and the cell to upper-center.

The central figure is actually Saint Peter, the patron apostle of the monastery that developed this lectionary. According to my studies, what I described as light from the Lord is probably more akin to flames, endowing the lower figures with power more than knowledge. The entire work is in Latin; the headline text “Audivimus” translates to “we have been hearing”, referring to the figures of authority in the monastery in which this work was created.

Illuminated works such as these took years upon years to construct, and each one was unique even if it were of a series. The expert design and dutiful effort required to create such a massive project is clearly seen in this example of a single page that is both illustration and manuscript from this lost art.

(artist unknown, located in Istanbul). (1555 to 60). Tughra of Sultan Suleyman [ink, paint and gold on paper]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York & Rogers Fund, 1938.

This work is not balanced. In terms of pictorial energy and weight if favors the left side to a distracting degree. Of course, it is beautiful etc. This is a strong example of how much respect this culture had/has for the letterform; clearly not a casual work of art. | 

What is effectively a signature seems to favor freedom more than strict design. The strongest contextual factor on this work was the era from which it was created. It is effectively an icon representing the signing ruler, Sultan Suleyman of the 16^th century. Any study of modern brand identity must include the extensive visual communication traditions developed by Islamic culture. 

Calligraphic line builds the skeleton of this work; textured pattern the skin. A contrasting value pattern throughout (not to mention gold) creates the sumptuous character of this signature. Intricate, subtle overlapping and intertwining stroke relationships create flattened depth, especially within the block to the lower-right quadrant. Pattern elements are formatted to present them on a single spatial plane. Lengthy vertical elements attempt to stabilize this work in how they favor the right horizontal half of its entirety, but this is unsuccessful. This is a work of asymmetry. 

Line predominates; it creates a pleasing contrast in free, swooping motions and nuanced, compact motion as the eye moves from area to area. Generous curves are abruptly interrupted by radical changes in direction and plunging, straight character. Patterned texture is pleasing, and its restful tone is aided by the calligraphic patterning outside of the proper image. Overall, this work is sensitive to graphic design principles: Measured negative space, clearly-defined edges, controlled eye movement, and pleasing pictorial harmony. 
The grace and sensitivity of this tughra is undeniable. It organically merges curved and straight edges and large, loose spaces with compact, intricate element combinations.  This is visual communication with pain-staking, exacting precision applied to each detail; a single flaw and the entire composition would have to be discarded. 

(artist unknown, originally created in Constantinople). (c.300). The Tretrarchs [porphyry statue]. Currently in Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice.

I already have exposure to this work so this cannot be an “initial impression”. Taken in whole, the four figures do bind together well to symbolize the Empire because of their equal size, detail development, dress, expressions, etc, not to mention native similarities like surface texture roughness and color. An effective division is made between East and West in how the pair of the two figures embrace. The figures themselves seem to be the same generalized person; the title of Augustus is actively interlocking with the passive title of Caesar. | 
Visual reality conforms to the simple, ordered message of the patron. With the exception of facial hair, the individuals could be four copies of the same person. Their dress, facial features and height are equal, suggesting the respect the Tetrarchs in practice share for each other in managing the Empire. This is a calm and measured combination of statues. 

This work is basically perceptual; of course all propaganda is visually compromised to serve the message. It also shows some of the trends of the time period of moving away for realistic idealism toward abstraction in an attempt to “clear the clutter” somewhat from that same message. |

The nature of the medium has restricted supporting elements to lines and textures; even value is muted. This only serves to emphasize the message even more. In the most general sense, this is a work of symmetry: A single figure is forged out of two that, in an idealistic sense, are equal in the sum of their parts. Those two secondary figures are further divided into neat halves that are, again, equal in utility and weight. When visual details are brought into this “fifty-thousand foot view”, pure symmetry breaks down into approximate because of minor differences in formatting and orientation.

Overly-generous use of formal harmony is employed. Hieratic scale is unintuitively used to emphasize the equality of authority the four figures share. Line treatment, in this case minor volume edges, is used to provide superficial surface embellishment and texture. Either way, they are all but straight, rapid, narrow and lengthy in character.

The closeness of the figures heads, framing of the area by the limb, direction of textured lines and the natural tendency to recognize faces place primary interest in that area for both pairs. This supports the meaning of this work quite well, because it suggests that each figure is of similar mind in their vision for the Empire. 

Clearly the arms-locked embrace, repeated dress and shared directional gazes are meant to communicate to the population that does not have access to those in control that they are, in fact, in control, supporting each other, and equals. In fact, this work is seminal in that it marks a change in the styles, if not tastes, that would prevail in western art: More emphasis on content over form, which results in sacrificed optical detail and a simplification of forms. If this work is compared to other Imperial works, such as the reliefs of the Ara Pacis, this formal migration is clearly seen. 

Artist known as Pan Painter (c.470 bc). Artemis Slaying Actaeon [vase register]. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston & James Fund.

The extent of this work is encapsulated in the story it tells and the expert, balanced use of positive and negative space. The calm energy of Artemis and agony of her prey are clearly communicated. |

Forms are typical of the red-figure technique used in mature Greek classical art: Stark value contrast between black and beige-red with forms characterized by brevity. The scene itself tells the title story. At its most basic level the lesson seems to be that in the simple day-to-day course of life, bad luck can lead to an undeserving and brutal end. 
The value/space blend carries this work. Line and texture support the balanced application of positive and negative space. Forms are flattened beyond decoration to the “canvas” surface and conform to its curvature. In spite of that action, fractional representation in the ancient sense does not apply here; there is a break from the use of that visual device in favor of a fresh sense of movement and energy coursing through the forms. 

Due to the framing motifs and the action of the figures, the eye is drawn in a horizontal manner across the scene. Generally, more emphasis is placed on the “active” (left) figure, then to the “reactive” (right). 

A strong contrast in achromatic values and equivalency in positive and negative space leap off the surface. Lines define secondary shapes (shapes within shapes). All shapes are incised with minor contrast in their size. Compositionally, this work is closed; one figure gestures in, the other up, all framed with a geometric pattern. It is nearly militaristic in its austerity. 

One of the clear themes of this work is the conflict of the feminine overpowering the masculine in both mastery over nature and strength. One would have to be familiar with the story to understand both figures are opposites in their mortality. Remarkable realistic detail is developed despite the almost planar nature of the figures; this execution is easily found on full-sculpture works of the era, and a characteristic trait of Greek Mature Classical creations. 

(artist unknown, from Akhenaten). (c.1348 to 1336). Akhenaten Fish-Shaped Vase [core glass]. The British Museum, London.

A wave-motif pattern seamlessly references the figure’s natural habitat. The color scheme further references water and is, I believe, a strong design choice because of the complementary orange-yellow it uses. | 
The form this vessel takes is quite identifiable: A bolti fish. The pattern its body carries is more likely to be scales than waves. Either way, creating visual beauty (idealism) is more of a priority than a literal translation (realism). Obviously, the utility of this object is the primary purpose behind its creation. The form it takes shows the skill and technical achievement of Egyptian faience. 

A pleasing, colorful pattern formats the plastic nature of this piece. This pattern is not only based on color but value as well. The color scheme is not strictly complementary, but close with blue scales contrasting against orangish-yellow highlights. This is strictly opinion, but the pattern itself hints at a degree of spatial depth. The gold portions of the pattern could be light reflections off the scales as would be seen above the surface of the water. The way the choices of pattern, color and value are arranged create a pleasing, balanced visual experience.

Harmony predominates, and is achieved. Interest is created through color temperature, chroma and value; each of these factors create a near field-and-ground relationship with each other. The arrangement and “directionality” of the pattern draws attention toward the vase’s opening (fish-figure's face).

The definition of the word “art” has been developed, broken and changes from era to era since the concepts of “science” and “expression” began separate from each other in western cultures beginning in the Renaissance. Many strong definitions have been established, one stating that when an object does more than the function for which it is crafted, the remainder beyond the utility is “art”. Clearly, under this definition alone, this vase is a beautiful work of creation.

(artist unknown, original located at Mari palace). (c.1750 bc). Investiture of Zimrilim [wall painting facsimile]. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

I’ll skip the caveat preamble. This work effectively reflects along a vertical axis; figures, creatures and plant forms generally repeat but they are individually different. The outer figures are prostrating; they and the creatures direct attention inward. The available frames at center are deities providing water and life (lower) and what look like those in command (upper). This arrangement is unexpected; usually the realm of the gods is arranged above that of mortals. | 

Overall the work is typical of ancient art: Forms are abstracted to the point required to conform to the surface they’re rendered on and present the most identifiable combination of features. Their arrangement is as deliberate as the message: King Zimrilim is the bringer of order, water and life (framing trees, lower-central panel), whose rule is represented and blessed by the gods (terminal edge figures and elevated figure, center panel). 
This work documents the legitimacy of Zimrilim’s position. More generally it is simply propaganda. Formally, it is a product of time period from which it was created. In terms of message, the intent of the patron is the only reason why it was created. 

Shape is supported by line, pattern and probably texture. The dimensions of color are clearly present but I can only guess at how much work they did. According to my primary reference, blue, orange and brown would’ve been used with neutrals. 

Even in its aged state, clearly depth is not a primary motivation. Shapes are formatted in a similar flattened, representative manner, presenting each scene at an equivalent distance from the observer. 

Lines define shapes, provide them with detail and frame the content. While shapes are dominated by natural subjects, they are stiff in tone. Overall formal choices are meant to harmonize the entire work, for example shape size and texture. The most effective harmonizing factor is the way juxtaposed light and dark components create a pleasing pattern throughout the entire scene. 

The orientation of this work’s figures direct eye movement toward the center cells. It seems that this work’s creator was using the context of the time, cultural awareness on the part of the observer, to place primary focus on the exchange between the two figures in the canvas-center cell. According to my studies, the goddess Ishtar (right, elevated) is investing the temporal ruler Zimrilim (left, subordinate) with her blessing to assume political authority. 

This mural is effective in documenting the political message intended by the patron. It shows sensitive spatial arrangement of figures and shapes, and advanced, graceful use of design. 

(artist unknown, from the ancient Egyptian Middle Kingdom period). (1836 to 1818 bc). Head of Senusret III [yellow quartzite]. The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.

This looks like a fragment, and in terms of arrangement is typical of Egyptian art in how perspectives are developed from the most representative view. For example, the ears seem to conform to a frontal view more than what optical reality would show. The expression on the figure’s face is not typical of Egyptian works. There is not a reference to the eternal, but to the specific present. | 

This is a rare work of realism from this culture. Documenting the likeness of Pharaoh Senusret III is clearly the most identifiable purpose behind it. Beyond that, communicating the troubles of his reign, and the somber nature of his character, are also well represented. While many works of ancient Egyptian rulers communicate a calm grasp on eternity, this one shows much more humanity. 

The sensitivity of the artist to create a strong likeness of the figure is, like all three-dimensional works, based on massing shapes in space. The work is (as currently presented) colorless, but an incidental tonal pattern when viewed from many (probably not all) perspectives is present. The Egyptians, of course, were concerned with profile and straight-on views. Balance is respected; it’s “true to life” development does not compete with the emotional content. 

Under display lighting conditions, forms are defined in such a way as to provide stark tonal planes and further highlight the somber mood. Deliberate lines are straight, parallel to each other, and used for both visual fidelity and texture development. As far as proportions are concerned, this work favors balance, in both the character of shapes (natural versus inorganic) and use of terminal values (tints and shades over midtones). 

It’s impossible to predict how the rest of this statue would’ve been rendered, but I think it’s safe to say that the body and limbs would’ve been presented in the typical straight-forward, “documentary” Egyptian style. With only the head available, either way I believe the face would be the focal point. The obvious reason is psychologically, humans recognize and gravitate towards the combination of figures that create the face. More importantly, the masterful way the figure’s emotional expression is rendered adds to this sense of gravity. 

Senusret III, as a specific ruler and man, I believe should be given pause and credit because he allows for the breaking from traditional Egyptian artistic formatting styles to allow more of who he truly is, and his doubts, to show through. If we think of a typical autocrat, such as Stalin, truth and reality are subordinate; they are building blocks to be manipulated to create the truth their broken minds have fabricated. In the case Senusret, works such as this one suggest his respect for dealing with reality, with the truth. 

(artist unknown, located in Knossos, Crete). (c.1550 to 1450 bc). Leaping Bull [wall fresco]. Archeological Museum, Iraklion, Crete.

Overall this is a well-composed and graceful rendering. The devices used to frame the scene are a particular strength, if a little overdone, and bind the work well. It’s state of preservation is better than expected too. For me personally, the association of the bull to Aegean culture is running the risk of becoming a platitude. | 

Forms are simplified to slender, sharp shapes which elevates the action of the figures. This work indicates the importance the bull had on Minoan culture. The specific event is not certain, but it clearly shows a civic or cultural event that involved vigorous physical activity in a public display. This wall painting clearly communicates movement and leaping grace. 

Planar shapes and abstracted textures carry this work. Edges are line-defined, and their curved treatment implies this work’s characteristic lateral motion more than any other elemental combination. Next, pattern is heavily used with the circular motif installed in the thick framework and this pattern repeats the colors, values and textures used in the central work. 

Spatial depth is considered through one measure: Elemental overlap. This arrangement and the planar nature of shapes result in a work that conforms to the media it’s rendered on. It nearly reflects horizontally. Pictorial energy moves from left to right in the scene and is counter-balanced by the slower right to left movement of the framing motif. 

Line is used to both harmonize and build tension. Dense, rigidly-repeated lines are used to provide a buffer within the enriched framework. Contrasted against this mechanical formatting are curved, rounded, narrow, long lines used to define shapes and textures. Shapes, too, provide harmony and variety. They are natural in character, but within this quality split between somewhat mechanical (embedded in the framework) and nearly calligraphic (to define figures). Color treatment, again, follows the binding/variety pattern, through temperature (warm and cool) and a complementary color scheme. 

Strong lateral movement energizes the “canvas”; layering reasons establish this, but the single strongest in my opinion is the cell-like, acrobatic dance of the athletes. To me, the scene visually describes an athlete flipping over an airborne bull, but this is not the case. The figures are without a doubt three separate people. Lines of force work equally from both left-to-right and right-to-left. 
Figures are reduced to shapes and those shapes completely conform to the surface of the medium. This is one of the more embellished frames extant in any era of art, and necessarily so for its binding qualities. Both scene and framework are oriented for a straight-on viewing. 

The state of preservation is largely due to excavators and experts reconstructing the work. This included restoring lost parts with portions that are duller in color and less contrasting in value. The rigidly-aligned tiny narrow blocks that define the “framework of the framework” are interesting because the remind me of a sort of “proto-dentil”, a design that can be found on many Greek cornices during the height of the golden age of Greek artistic achievement. In my opinion, this work is one of the earliest examples in existence of structured ambiguity used to supportive effect. This is based on the cross-directional lateral lines of eye movement created by the figures.

(artist unknown, located in Rome). (13 to 9 bc). Imperial Procession, south side of Ara Pacis [marble relief].

My impression is this work is advanced for the era, and shows a high degree of achievement on the part of Roman sculptors. The overall statement of what amounts to a family portrait is frustrating to me because it shows a family that, in my opinion, lives in opulence based on a near-parasitic relationship with the population while many if not most of its citizens are suffering and can hardly feed themselves. I can’t stop myself from judging this extended family unit with cynicism. |

Idealized realism characterizes this work; forms are presented in overlapping manner to optical reality. Elemental pacing and directional forces present the figures in an arrangement that would be difficult to achieve without being posed. Documenting in relief the extended imperial family of the first Emperor, Octavian, is the subject of this work. It presents them as pious, family-oriented, with curious, well-behaved children. 

That this work is a beautiful and respectably realistic portrait of a family is obvious. Pattern is an undeniable strength of this relief. The arrangement of limbs, heads, the directionality of clothing folds and the even pacing of figures is simply amazing. It results in an even-paced distribution of shapes, axis lines that are parallel to the ground plane and bisected by oblique angles that are parallel to each other, and organically presents a sense of steady movement as the group casually stands together as a family. 

Splitting the difference between portraiture and sculpture, reliefs are burdened with a portion of the difficulties characteristic of two-dimensional art when attempting to describe spatial depth. The creator(s) of this work developed a solution that surpasses all reasonable standards. Figures on the far side of the procession have forms that are less defined and flattened into the medium, providing an implied atmospheric perspective. Nearby figures are much more richly developed, some to the point of becoming in-the-round sculpture. 

Local areas are energized with specific details that are unique to their figures, but taken in whole this work is remarkably stable and elementally diffuse to near-rigidity. In terms of balance, one well-crafted disharmonizing measure is the oblique lines of force that vie against the nearly military lateral pace of this procession. 

Defined, figurative shapes dominate. The size of all shapes is well-balanced and contrast well; small rounded shapes are the same rough size while large shapes (cloth-covered bodies) are upright, narrow and textured with folds. All lines are well-defined and angled to one degree or another and yet organic in character. Harmony predominates; to the casual observer, it’s everything a portrait (in this case series of portraits) should be and much more. 

I will not identify a single area as being primary over another as far as the attention it draws; structured ambiguity is subtle, and not an end. What I see are a series of “moments”, or silent exchanges between figures, that “pull” more effort on the part of the observer because there is quite obvious communication occurring between these figures. This occurs laterally between adult figures along the top axis of the work; dramatically diagonally between adult and child figures lower down; and finally at less dramatic diagonal angles between children, especially toward the lower-eastern quadrant. Overall, energy is diffuse, moving in wave-like motion laterally in rhythm with the masterful figurative pattern. 

It seems the perspective of the viewer somewhat elevates this procession. Some of the figures are developed to the point of nearly detaching from the medium they are developed on. Where this happens, it tends to be toward the top of the figure, which has the effect of “bending” perspective by, when looking from straight-on, elevating the work and lowering the observer. Other choices, such as the placement of feet, draw the observer into the work in a more inviting, less stratified, way. 

Value is used to masterful and not quite dramatic effect. Value does more than provide a framework for this piece; more than any other element or strategy it nearly breathes life into the figures, setting them in motion. Value defines shapes, shapes create patterns, and pattern animates motion. I believe favoring naturalism over idealism and depicting a specific event over the eternal are strong choices in this deliberate, well-planned work. The emotionally available observer unmistakably feels the sense of familial warmth and intuitively understands the subtle gestures which draw them in to the rendering. 

(artist unknown, probably from Constantinople). (12th century). Virgin of Vladimir [tempura on panel]. Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow.

I find this work creepy, actually. The adult face on the infant Christ is off-putting. I believe the age of the work caused some of the darkening that seems troubling from a design perspective. Forms are flattened and simplified, for the most part. Some are treated with depth development. |

The Virgin and the Baby are the subject of this work. Her gaze reaches out to the audience and gently draws them in; the love they share is quite clearly a primary message of this work. Possibly due to age, there is sharp contrasts in value from shape-to-shape. An important detail of this work is that it depicts a subjective trend of the era, called Virgin of Compassion, which is a rendering of the Mother and the baby Christ in a loving embrace. 

Visual elements are heavily simplified. Shape, value, texture and directional gazes unify to support the warm, loving mood of this work. To put it another way, this work borders on conceptual over perceptual. One of the interesting details is the development of value is specific areas: The faces of the subjects. It shows the slow development of tenebrism that would prevail in the coming centuries. The Virgin’s form qualifies for this work’s background more than the actual background, enveloping and cradling the Baby’s form in protection. 

This work is quite stable. Its vertical orientation is due more to the arrangement of shapes more than the picture plane. Shapes are defined not through line but through near-absolute, abrupt changes in contrast. To say this work is either elementally or pictorially harmonious or not misses the point of the strong, simple emotional content it communicates. 

Value development is used only in those areas the artist wants attention to be allocated, sacrificing optical reality. The nearly-polarized formatting of elements, which may be due to it’s age, quite effectively draw attention to the loving exchange shared by the two figures. 

The Child’s facial treatment is not an imitation of adulthood but of value development and shows a directness of expression that is not possible of infants. This work, considered an icon, simply speaks to devotees of Christianity in such a way that it has been the recipient of many prayers and gestures of contrivance for centuries. The combination of Christ and Virgin is quite a common theme in western history, and as will be seen in later essays of this project, the range of emotions communicated by this theme is as wide as human experience. This one, of course, is safe, tender and loving. 

(artist unknown, located in Cairo) (c.1368). Koran frontispiece, right side [manuscript]. National Library, Cairo.

This is a work of pure design, crafted with exceeding intricacy and beauty. The design is so sensitive that letterforms blend into and are enveloped by the patterns and motifs. Even in its aged condition, an impression of depth is created. | 

I chose to describe this work as objective abstraction, rather than non-objective, because of the impression it creates that there are multiple layers viewed from directly overhead that can offer footing and be explored. In addition, some forms are recognizable as foliage and plants. Of course, an argument could easily be made that the impressions are just that, and this work is nothing more than a series of shapes and spacing.

This is an excellent example of the unsurpassed design achievement of Islamic culture during the middle ages. The design is the subject of this piece; the result is a level of intricacy and elemental density that is simply amazing. Visually, this work is peaceful. 

Sumptuous pattern is the primary vehicle used; it borders on overly-dense but is well-spaced and ordered. Calligraphic shapes and lines, an interplay of the two kinds of space and a strong supportive alternating value pattern integrates into the overall structure of this work. A satisfying texture is a side-effect of this elemental unification. 

Patterns framed by patterns nearly break this work’s pictorial flatness. If you will, this work has some of the most “plastic decorativeness” to be found in two-dimensional art. I believe value builds this work’s depth. It clearly defines shapes; midtones are found raising up high-key shapes; similarly, dense tones sink behind other lighter strokes in some of the cells woven into the patterns. Arguably, radial symmetry applies. 


Lush. This work is teeming with narrow, graceful lines, straight and rounded, with full variation in measure and value. Line both frames and embellishes, provides rest and action, builds shapes and subjects. The amazing, complicated use of line develops texture, depth and harmonizes a visually stimulating, lush work of art. 

I cannot speak or read Farsi or Urdu; if I could it’s possible the message of the decorative strokes that clearly form words would capture and hold initial interest. It goes without saying text is effective at attracting attention. Aside from this, the central, complicated star-figure draws a lot of visual effort even with its formatting nearly embedding it into its surroundings. The framing devices not only cradle it but seem to spiral towards it in spite of their angular, perpendicular formatting. This work toys with the idea of ambiguity because of its global decorative appearance. 

These designs respect the limitations of the “field” they are designed on. The formatting of the elements and arrangement in their assigned areas, when globally considered in area-to-area relationships, strive to use space to maximum decorative effect. This work is simply a masterpiece of design. Its overall mood is restful, but there is undeniable energy based on the incredible detail present. The care in planning and execution clearly reflect the respect both the creator(s) and patron(s) had for the Holy Book.